Garlic
Contents of Garlic from WH Foods Although garlic may not always bring good luck, protect against evil or ward off vampires, it is guaranteed to transform any meal into a bold, aromatic and healthy culinary experience.
Fresh, dried and powdered garlic are available in markets throughout the year, however, fresh varieties from California are in season from June through December.
Garlic is arranged in a head, called the "bulb," averaging about 2 inches in height and diameter consisting of numerous small separate cloves. Both the cloves and the entire bulb are encased in paper-like sheathes that can be white, off-white or pinkish. Although garlic cloves have a firm texture, they can be easily cut or crushed. The taste of garlic is like no other-it hits the palate with a hot pungency that is shadowed by a very subtle background sweetness. While elephant garlic has larger cloves, it is more closely related to the leek and therefore does not offer the full health benefits of regular garlic.
This chart graphically details the %DV that a serving of Garlic provides for each of the nutrients of which it is a good, very good, or excellent source according to our Food Rating System. Additional information about the amount of these nutrients provided by Garlic can be found in the Food Rating System Chart. A link that takes you to the In-Depth Nutritional Profile for Garlic, featuring information over 80 nutrients, can be found under the Food Rating System Chart.
Cardiovascular BenefitsNumerous studies have demonstrated potential benefits of regular garlic consumption on blood pressure, platelet aggregation, serum triglyceride level, and cholesterol levels. Routine eating of garlic may also help stimulate the production of nitric oxide in the lining of blood vessel walls, which may help to relax them. As a result of these beneficial actions, garlic can be described as a food that may help prevent atherosclerosis and diabetic heart disease, as well as reducing the risk of heart attack or stroke. However, exactly which individuals are most benefitted from garlic consumption remains a matter of some debate. A study published in theArchives of Internal Medicine showed that garlic did not help lower LDL cholesterol in adults with moderately high (versus very high) levels when consumed at approximately one clove per day, six days per week, for 6 months. However, these researchers simulateously concluded that garlic might still have cardiovascular benefits for these same individuals, even though it did not help lower their LDL levels. While more large-scale research studies are needed to determine the exact nature of garlic's benefits, this food can definitely be considered a potential ally in heart health.
A study published in Preventive Medicine shows that garlic inhibits coronary artery calcification, a process that serves as a marker for plaque formation since the body lays down calcium in areas that have been damaged. In this year-long study, patients given aged garlic extract daily showed an average increase in their calcium score of 7.5%, while those in the placebo group had an average increase in calcium score of 22.2%.
One reason for garlic's beneficial effects may be its ability to lessen the amount of free radicals present in the bloodstream. According to a study published in Life Sciences, a daily dose of 1 ml/kg body weight of garlic extract for six months resulted in a significant reduction in oxidant (free radical) stress in the blood of patients with atherosclerosis.
Since atherosclerotic plaques develop when cholesterol circulating in the bloodstream is damaged or oxidized, garlic's ability to prevent these oxidation reactions may explain some of its beneficial effects in atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. A German study published in Toxicology Letters indicates that garlic also greatly reduces plaque deposition and size by preventing the formation of the initial complex that develops into an atherosclerotic plaque. Called "nanoplaque," it is formed when calcium binds to proteoheparan sulfate and then to LDL cholesterol. Garlic prevents the binding of calcium to proteoheparan sulfate, thus decisively inhibiting plaque generation.
Research presented at the 6th Annual Conference on Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology held by the American Heart Association in Washington, D.C., suggests that garlic can help prevent and potentially reverse atherosclerotic plaque formation. The laboratory studies, conducted by well-known German scientist Professor Güautnter Siegel, M.D., from the University of Medicine in Berlin, Germany, found that powdered garlic (Kwai ® garlic) reduced the formation of nanoplaque (the first building blocks of atherosclerotic plaque) by up to 40% and reduced the size of the nanoplaque that did form by up to 20%.
Dr. Siegel's research shows that garlic acts in a manner similar to HDL ("good") cholesterol, which prevents the build-up of nanoplaques by hindering the docking of LDL ("bad" cholesterol) to its receptor sites in blood vessels or existing plaques.
Both garlic and HDL were able to reduce plaque formation and size within 30 minutes of incubation in these experiments. Existing plaques were dissolved by up to 25% within 15 minutes after the garlic was introduced, indicating a reversal of existing problems related to build-up of arterial plaque. In addition, calcification of the cholesterol docking sites in the arteries was reduced by up to 50% in the presence of the garlic extracts.
New Research More Fully Explains Garlic's Cardiovascular BenefitsLaboratory research by US and Swedish scientists published in the August 2005 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciencesreveals the mechanism behind garlic's cardiovascular benefits.
The compounds in garlic responsible for its pungency also excite a neuron pathway providing cardiovascular benefits. Garlic's pungency-and that of the other members of the Alliumgenus of plants, such as onions, leeks and chives-results from its organosulphur compounds, allicin and diallyl disulphide (DADS). In this current in vitro study, allicin and DADS were found to activate perivascular sensory nerve endings, inducing the relaxation and enlargement of blood vessels, lowering blood pressure and improving blood flow throughout the body.
Garlic's numerous beneficial cardiovascular effects are due to not only its sulfur compounds, but also to its vitamin C, vitamin B6, selenium and manganese:
Garlic is a very good source of vitamin C, the body's primary antioxidant defender in all aqueous (water-soluble) areas, such as the bloodstream, where it protects LDL cholesterol from oxidation. Since it is the oxidized form of LDL cholesterol that initiates damage to blood vessel walls, reducing levels of oxidizing free radicals in the bloodstream can have a profound effect on preventing cardiovascular disease.
Garlic's vitamin B6 helps prevent heart disease via another mechanism: lowering levels of homocysteine. An intermediate product of an important cellular biochemical process called the methylation cycle, homocysteine can directly damage blood vessel walls.
The selenium in garlic not only helps prevent heart disease, but also provides protection against cancer and heavy metal toxicity. A cofactor of glutathione peroxidase (one of the body's most important internally produced antioxidants), selenium also works with vitamin E in a number of vital antioxidant systems. Since vitamin E is one of the body's top defenders in all fat-soluble areas, while vitamin C protects the water-soluble areas, garlic, which contains both nutrients, does a good job of covering all the bases.
Garlic is rich not only in selenium, but also in another trace mineral, manganese, which also functions as a cofactor in a number of other important antioxidant defense enzymes, for example, superoxide dismutase. Studies have found that in adults deficient in manganese, the level of HDL (the "good form" of cholesterol) is decreased.
Practical Tip: National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Level III-3 evidence shows that consuming a half to one clove of garlic daily may have a cholesterol-lowering effect of up to 9%.(Tapsell LC, Hemphill I, et al. Med J Aust)
Anti-Inflammatory, Antibacterial and Antiviral ActivityGarlic, like onions, contains compounds that inhibit lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase, (the enzymes that generate inflammatory prostaglandins and thromboxanes), thus markedly reducing inflammation. These anti-inflammatory compounds along with the vitamin C in garlic, especially fresh garlic, make it useful for helping to protect against severe attacks in some cases of asthma and may also help reduce the pain and inflammation of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.
In addition, allicin, one of the sulfur-compounds responsible for garlic's characteristic odor, is a powerful antibacterial and antiviral agent that joins forces with vitamin C to help kill harmful microbes. In research studies, allicin has been shown to be effective not only against common infections like colds, flu, stomach viruses, and Candida yeast, but also against powerful pathogenic microbes including tuberculosis and botulism.
Although garlic alone appears unable to prevent infection with Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), the bacterium responsible for most peptic ulcers, as well as gastritis, frequently eating this richly flavored bulb may keep H. pylori from doing much damage. A study recently conducted at Faith University in Istanbul, Turkey, compared two groups of healthy individuals: one was selected from individuals who regularly ate lots of raw and/or cooked garlic, while the other group was composed of individuals who avoided it. For 19 months, blood samples were regularly collected from both groups and evaluated for the presence of H.pylori. While the incidence of H.pylori was pretty comparable-the bacterium was found in 79% of garlic eaters and 81% of those who avoided garlic-the garlic-consuming group had a clear advantage in that antibodies to H.pylori were much lower in their blood compared to those who ate no garlic. (Antibodies are formed when the immune system reacts to anything it considers a potential pathogen, so less antibodies toH.pylori means less of the bacterium was present.) Among those who ate garlic, those who ate both raw and cooked garlic had even lower levels of antibodies than those who ate their garlic only raw or only cooked.
Laboratory studies recently conducted at the University of Munich, Germany, help explain why garlic may be such a potent remedy against the common cold. In these studies, garlic was found to significantly reduce the activity of a chemical mediator of inflammation called nuclear transcription factor (NF) kappa-B.NF kappa-B is itself activated as part of the immune system's inflammatory response to invading organisms and damaged tissue. So, anything that sets off an inflammatory response (e.g. allergenic foods, a cold or other infection, physical trauma, excessive exercise, excessive consumption of foods containing high levels of omega-6 fatty acids-such as meat, corn or safflower oil) can trigger a surge in NF kappa-B, which in turn not only promotes inflammation but sets up ideal conditions for viruses, including HIV, to replicate. In the blood samples tested in these German studies, unfertilized garlic caused a 25% drop in NF kappa-B activity, while sulfur-fertilized garlic lowered NF kappa-B activity by a very robust 41%!
Garlic and Onions Protective against Many CancersMaking garlic and onions a staple in your healthy way of eating may greatly lower your risk of several common cancers, suggests a large data set of case-control studies from Southern European populations (Galeone C, Pelucchi C et al, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition).
Study participants consuming the most garlic had a 39% reduced risk for cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx, 57% reduced risk for esophageal cancer, 26% reduced risk for colorectal cancer, 44% reduced risk for laryngeal cancer, 10% reduced risk for breast cancer, 22% reduced risk for ovarian cancer, 19% reduced risk for prostate cancer, and 31% reduced risk for renal cell cancer, compared to those eating the least garlic. Similarly, those eating the most onions showed an 84% reduced risk for cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx, 88% reduced risk for esophageal cancer, 56% reduced risk for colorectal cancer, 83% reduced risk for laryngeal cancer, 25% reduced risk for breast cancer, 73% reduced risk for ovarian cancer, 71% reduced risk for prostate cancer, and 38% reduced risk for renal cell cancer, compared to those eating the least onions.
Potent, Even Against Drug-Resistant Strains of BacteriaResults of two studies suggest that garlic is a potent antibiotic, even against strains that have become resistant to many drugs. One study conducted at the University of California Irvine Medical Center and published in the December 2003 issue of Nutrition showed that garlic juice, even when diluted up to 1:128 of the original juice, demonstrates significant antibacterial activity against a spectrum of pathogens including antibiotic-resistant strains such as methicillin- and ciprofloxacin-resistant staphylococci, vancomycin-resistant enterococci, and ciprofloxacin-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. A second study found that garlic was able to inhibit methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MSRA) from human patients that was injected into laboratory animals.(MSRA is one of the antibiotic resistant bacteria whose incidence has risen dramatically in recent years in hospitals.)
Promotes Optimal Health
The organosulfur compound found in garlic called ajoene may also be useful in the treatment of skin cancer. In a study published in the July 2003 Archives of Dermatological Research, researchers applied ajoene topically to the tumors of patients with either nodular or superficial basal cell carcinoma, and in 17 of the 21 patients, the tumors shrunk significantly. Lab tests of the tumors before and after the application of ajoene revealed a significant decrease in Bcl-2, an apoptosis-suppressing protein. (Apoptosis is the self-destruct sequence used by the body to eliminate cancerous cells.)
Other studies have shown that as few as two or more servings of garlic a week may help protect against colon cancer. Substances found in garlic, such as allicin, have been shown to not only protect colon cells from the toxic effects of cancer-causing chemicals, but also to stop the growth of cancer cells once they develop. While more research is needed to confirm, recent animal research has also suggested that garlic may confer protection against the development of stomach cancer through its potential ability to decreaseH.pylori-induced gastritits.
Cooking garlic with meat appears to reduce the production of carcinogenic (cancer-causing) chemicals that can occur in meat as a result of cooking methods, such as grilling, that expose meat to high temperatures.
Research presented at the American Association for Cancer Research's Frontiers in Cancer Prevention Research meeting in Baltimore, MD, suggests that the phytonutrient responsible for garlic's pungency may help prevent cancer by inhibiting the effects of one such carcinogen called PhIP.A cancer-causing heterocyclic amine, PhIP is thought to be one reason for the increased incidence of breast cancer among women who eat large quantities of meat because it is rapidly transformed into DNA-damaging compounds.
Diallyl sulphide (DAS), an organosulfur compound that gives garlic its unique flavor, has been shown to inhibit the transformation of PhIP into carcinogens. DAS blocks this transformation by decreasing the production of the liver enzymes (the Phase I enzymes CYP1A1, CYP1A2 and CYP1B1) that transform PhIP into activated DNA-damaging compounds.
In addition, DAS signals the genes responsible for producing two protective antioxidant enzymes, (glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), which help protect the body against harmful compounds such as those produced from PhIP. These findings suggest that making garlic, onion, chives and other Allium vegetables, all of which contain DAS, a staple part of your Healthiest Way of Eating may help in preventing breast cancer induced by PhIP in well-done meats. And enjoying these DAS-rich foods may help protect the men you love as well: Consumption of Allium vegetables has also been associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer.
Good intakes of vitamin C and selenium, with which fresh garlic is well-endowed, are also associated with a reduced risk of colon cancer, making garlic a smart addition to any colon cancer prevention plan.
Cardiovascular disease is a well-known side-effect of diabetes, but garlic may provide some protection. When diabetic laboratory animals were given garlic extract for an 8-week period, the hyperreactivity of their blood vessels to noradrenaline (a vasoconstrictive hormone) and acetylcholine (a compound involved in nerve transmission) was significantly lessened. According to the researchers, their results suggest that garlic may help prevent the development of abnormal vascular contraction seen in diabetics.
Promotes Weight ControlThe most potent active constituent in garlic, allicin, has been shown to not only lower blood pressure, insulin and triglycerides in laboratory animals fed a fructose (sugar)-rich diet, but also to prevent weight gain, according to a study published in the American Journal of Hypertension. In this study, animals who developed high insulin levels, high blood pressure, and high triglycerides were given either allicin or served as a control. Despite the fact that all of the animals consumed the same amount of food, weight rose in the control group but not in animals who were being supplemented with allicin. In those groups, body weight remained stable or declined slightly when allicin was given. The researchers concluded that allicin may be of practical value for weight control.
Protection against AsbestosAsbestos, a well-known carcinogen, is thought to cause cell mutations by generating reactive oxygen species (free radicals) and depleting one of the body's most important internally produced antioxidants, glutathione. Garlic contains numerous sulfur compounds and glutathione precursors that act as antioxidants and also demonstrate anti-carcinogenic properties. In a laboratory study published in Toxicology Letters, garlic extract, when administered along with asbestos, so significantly reduced DNA mutations in human blood lymphocytes (a type of immune cell), that the researchers concluded: "garlic extract may be an efficient, physiologically tolerable quencher of asbestos-induced genotoxcity."
DescriptionFor a small vegetable, garlic (Allium sativum) sure has a big, and well deserved, reputation. This member of the Lily family, a cousin to onions, leeks and chives, can transform any meal into a bold, aromatic and healthy culinary experience.
Garlic is arranged in a head, called the "bulb," which is made up of separate cloves. Both the cloves and the entire bulb are encased in paper-like sheathes that can be white, off-white or pinkish.
Garlic cloves are off-white in color, and although they have a firm texture, they can be easily cut or crushed. The taste of garlic is like no other; it hits the palate with a hot pungency that is shadowed by a very subtle background sweetness.
The teardrop-shaped garlic bulbs range in size; however, they usually average around two inches in height and two inches in width at their widest point. While elephant garlic has larger cloves, it is more closely related to the leek and therefore does not offer the full health benefits of regular garlic.
HistoryNative to central Asia, garlic is one of the oldest cultivated plants in the world and has been grown for over 5000 years. Ancient Egyptians seem to have been the first to cultivate this plant that played an important role in their culture.
Garlic was not only bestowed with sacred qualities and placed in the tomb of Pharaohs, but it was given to the slaves that built the Pyramids to enhance their endurance and strength. This strength-enhancing quality was also honored by the ancient Greeks and Romans, civilizations whose athletes ate garlic before sporting events and whose soldiers consumed it before going off to war.
Garlic was introduced into various regions throughout the globe by migrating cultural tribes and explorers. By the 6th century BC, garlic was known in both China and India, the latter country using it for therapeutic purposes.
Throughout the millennia, garlic has been a beloved plant in many cultures for both its culinary and medicinal properties. Over the last few years, it has gained unprecedented popularity since researchers have been scientifically validating its numerous health benefits.
Currently, China, South Korea, India, Spain and the United States are among the top commercial producers of garlic.
How to Select and StoreFor maximum flavor and nutritional benefits, always purchase fresh garlic. Although garlic in flake, powder or paste form may be more convenient, you will derive less culinary and health benefits from these forms.
Purchase garlic that is plump and has unbroken skin. Gently squeeze the garlic bulb between your fingers to check that it feels firm and is not damp.
Avoid garlic that is soft, shriveled and moldy or that has begun to sprout. These may be indications of decay that will cause inferior flavor and texture. Size is often not an indication of quality. If your recipe calls for a large amount of garlic, remember that it is always easier to peel and chop a few larger cloves than many smaller ones. Fresh garlic is available in the market throughout the year.
Store fresh garlic in either an uncovered or a loosely covered container in a cool, dark place away from exposure to heat and sunlight. This will help maintain its maximum freshness and help prevent sprouting, which reduces its flavor and causes excess waste. It is not necessary to refrigerate garlic. Some people freeze peeled garlic; however, this process reduces its flavor profile and changes its texture.
Depending upon its age and variety, whole garlic bulbs will keep fresh from two weeks to two months. Inspect the bulb frequently and remove any cloves that appear to be dried out or moldy. Once you break the head of garlic, it greatly reduces its shelf life to just a few days.
How to EnjoyTips for Preparing Garlic:The first step to using garlic (unless you are roasting the entire bulb) is to separate the individual cloves. An easy way to do this is to place the bulb on a cutting board or hard surface and gently, but firmly, apply pressure with the palm of your hand at an angle. This will cause the layers of skin that hold the bulb together to separate.
To separate the skin from the individual cloves, place a clove with the smooth side down on a cutting board and gently tap it with the flat side of a wide knife. You can then remove the skin either with your fingers or with a small knife. If there is a green sprout in the clove's center, gently remove it since it is difficult to digest.
Chopping or crushing stimulates the enzymatic process that converts the phytonutrient alliin into allicin, a compound to which many of garlic's health benefits are attributed. In order to allow for maximal allicin production, wait several minutes before eating or cooking the garlic.
Crush then cook garlic cloves lightly for the most health benefits, say Agricultural Research Service scientists. Garlic's heart-protective phytonutrients-its allicin and thiosulfinates- help lower blood pressure and break up clumps of potentially artery-clogging platelets in the bloodstream. Until now, most researchers assumed eating raw whole garlic bulbs would provide the most phytonutrient activity, but when they boiled (3 minutes), baked (200 degrees C) and microwaved both crushed and uncrushed garlic cloves, they discovered that crushing, which frees garlic's beneficial compounds, is responsible for most of its health benefits. Although cooking for 10 minutes completely suppressed garlic's phytonutrient actions, lightly cooking garlic was no problem-except for microwaving, which almost entirely stripped garlic of its blood-thinning effects. J Agric Food Chem. 2007 Feb 21;55(4):1280-8.
A Few Quick Serving Ideas:Marinate pressed garlic in olive oil and use this flavored oil in dressings and marinades.
Purée fresh garlic, canned garbanzo beans, tahini, olive oil and lemon juice to make quick and easy hummus dip.
Healthy sauté steamed spinach, garlic, and fresh lemon juice.
Add garlic to sauces and soups.
Purée roasted garlic, cooked potatoes and olive oil together to make delicious garlic mashed potatoes. Season to taste.
Individual ConcernsGarlic is not a commonly allergenic food, is not known to contain measurable amounts of oxalates or purines and is also not included in the Environmental Working Group's 2009 report "Shopper's Guide to Pesticides" as one of the 12 foods most frequently containing pesticide residues.
Do not store garlic in oil at room temperature. Garlic-in-oil mixtures stored at room temperature provide perfect conditions for producing botulism, regardless of whether the garlic is fresh or has been roasted.
Nutritional ProfileGarlic is an excellent source of manganese. . It is also a very good source of vitamin B6 and vitamin C. and . In addition, garlic is a good source of protein and thiamin (vitamin B1) as well as the minerals phosphorus, selenium, calcium, potassium, iron and copper.
For an in-depth nutritional profile click here: Garlic.
In-Depth Nutritional ProfileIn addition to the nutrients highlighted in our ratings chart, an in-depth nutritional profile for Garlic is also available. This profile includes information on a full array of nutrients, including carbohydrates, sugar, soluble and insoluble fiber, sodium, vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, amino acids and more. Introduction to Food Rating System ChartIn order to better help you identify foods that feature a high concentration of nutrients for the calories they contain, we created a Food Rating System. This system allows us to highlight the foods that are especially rich in particular nutrients. The following chart shows the nutrients for which this food is either an excellent, very good, or good source (below the chart you will find a table that explains these qualifications). If a nutrient is not listed in the chart, it does not necessarily mean that the food doesn't contain it. It simply means that the nutrient is not provided in a sufficient amount or concentration to meet our rating criteria. (To view this food's in-depth nutritional profile that includes values for dozens of nutrients - not just the ones rated as excellent, very good, or good - please use the link below the chart.) To read this chart accurately, you'll need to glance up in the top left corner where you will find the name of the food and the serving size we used to calculate the food's nutrient composition. This serving size will tell you how much of the food you need to eat to obtain the amount of nutrients found in the chart. Now, returning to the chart itself, you can look next to the nutrient name in order to find the nutrient amount it offers, the percent Daily Value (DV%) that this amount represents, the nutrient density that we calculated for this food and nutrient, and the rating we established in our rating system. For most of our nutrient ratings, we adopted the government standards for food labeling that are found in the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's "Reference Values for Nutrition Labeling." Read more background information and details of our rating system.Garlic
1.00 oz-wt
28.35 grams
42.24 caloriesNutrientAmountDV
(%)Nutrient
DensityWorld's Healthiest
Foods Ratingmanganese0.47 mg23.510.0excellentvitamin B6 (pyridoxine)0.35 mg17.57.5very goodvitamin C8.85 mg14.86.3very goodtryptophan0.02 g6.32.7goodselenium4.03 mcg5.82.5goodcalcium51.31 mg5.12.2goodphosphorus43.38 mg4.31.8goodvitamin B1 (thiamin)0.06 mg4.01.7goodcopper0.08 mg4.01.7goodprotein1.80 g3.61.5goodWorld's Healthiest
Foods RatingRuleexcellentDV>=75%ORDensity>=7.6ANDDV>=10%very goodDV>=50%ORDensity>=3.4ANDDV>=5%goodDV>=25%ORDensity>=1.5ANDDV>=2.5%In-Depth Nutritional Profile for Garlic
References
For the former town, see Garlic, California.Garlic
Allium sativum, known as garlic, from William Woodville, Medical Botany, 1793.
Scientific classificationKingdom:Plantae
(unranked):Angiosperms
(unranked):Monocots
Order:Asparagales
Family:Alliaceae
Subfamily:Allioideae
Tribe:Allieae
Genus:Allium
Species:A. sativum
Binomial nameAllium sativum
L.Allium sativum, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the onion family Alliaceae. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot,leek, and chive. Garlic has been used throughout recorded history for both culinary and medicinal purposes. It has a characteristic pungent, spicy flavor that mellows and sweetens considerably with cooking.[1] A bulb of garlic, the most commonly used part of the plant, is divided into numerous fleshy sections called cloves. Single clove garlic (also called Pearl garlic or Solo garlic) also exists—it originates in the Yunnan province of China. The cloves are used as seed, for consumption (raw or cooked), and for medicinal purposes. The leaves, stems (scape), and flowers (bulbils) on the head (spathe) are also edible and are most often consumed while immature and still tender. The papery, protective layers of "skin" over various parts of the plant and the roots attached to the bulb are the only parts not considered palatable.
Contents[hide]
[edit] List of the cultivars This section requires expansion.
[edit] Origin and distributionThe ancestry of cultivated garlic, according to Zohary and Hopf, is not definitely established: "A difficulty in the identification of its wild progenitor is the sterility of the cultivars."[4]
Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalised; it probably descended from the species Allium longicuspis, which grows wild in southwestern Asia.[5] The "wild garlic", "crow garlic", and "field garlic" of Britain are the speciesAllium ursinum, Allium vineale, and Allium oleraceum, respectively. In North America, Allium vineale (known as "wild garlic" or "crow garlic") and Allium canadense, known as "meadow garlic" or "wild garlic" and "wild onion", are common weeds in fields.[6] One of the best-known "garlics", the so-called elephant garlic, is actually a wild leek (Allium ampeloprasum). It is called "Sudu Lunu" in Sinhalese, Lehsun in Urdu and Hindi, Velli ullipaaya in Telugu and Vellai poondu in Tamil.
[edit] CultivationGarlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. In cold climates, cloves can be planted in the ground about six weeks before the soil freezes and harvested in late spring. Garlic plants are not attacked by pests. They can suffer from pink root, a disease that stunts the roots and turns them pink or red. Garlic plants can be grown close together, leaving enough room for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth.
There are different types or subspecies of garlic, most notably hardneck garlic and softneck garlic. The latitude where the garlic is grown affects the chocie of type as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is generally grown in cooler climates; softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator.[7][8]
[edit] Production trends
Garlic output in 2005.
Garlic is grown globally, but China is by far the largest producer of garlic, with approximately 10.5 million tonnes (23 billion pounds) annually, accounting for over 77% of world output. India (4.1%) and South Korea (2%) follow, with Russia (1.6%) in fourth place and the United States (where garlic is grown primarily as a cash crop in every state except for Alaska) in fifth place (1.4%).[9] This leaves 16% of global garlic production in countries that each produce less than 2% of global output. Much of the garlic production in the United States is centered on Gilroy, California, which calls itself the "garlic capital of the world".
Top Ten Garlic Producers — 11 June 2008CountryProduction (Tonnes)Footnote People's Republic of China12,088,000F India645,000F South Korea325,000F Russia254,000F United States221,810
Egypt168,000F Spain142,400
Argentina140,000F Myanmar128,000F Ukraine125,000F World15,686,310ANo symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = unofficial/semiofficial/mirror data,
C = calculated figure, A = aggregate (may include official, semiofficial, or estimates).
Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic and Social Department: The Statistical Division
[edit] Uses[edit] Culinary uses
Garlic being crushed using agarlic press.
Garlic is widely used around the world for its pungent flavor as a seasoning or condiment. It is a fundamental component in many or most dishes of various regions, including eastern Asia, south Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, northern Africa, southern Europe, and parts of South and Central America. The flavour varies in intensity and aroma with the different cooking methods. It is often paired with onion, tomato, or ginger. The parchment-like skin is much like the skin of an onion and is typically removed before using in raw or cooked form. An alternative is to cut the top off the bulb, coat the cloves by dribbling olive oil (or other oil-based seasoning) over them, and roast them in an oven. The garlic softens and can be extracted from the cloves by squeezing the (root) end of the bulb, or individually by squeezing one end of the clove. In Japan and Korea, heads of garlic are fermented at high temperature; the resulting product, called black garlic, is sweet and syrupy, and is now being sold in the United States, United Kingdom andAustralia.
Garlic may be applied to breads to create a variety of classic cuisines such as garlic bread, garlic toast, bruschetta, crostini andcanapé.
Garlic being rubbed using a garlicboss
Oils are often flavored with garlic cloves. These infused oils are used to season all categories of vegetables, meats, breads andpasta.
In some cuisine, the young bulbs are pickled for 3–6 weeks in a mixture of sugar, salt, and spices. In eastern Europe, the shoots are pickled and eaten as an appetizer.
Immature scapes are tender and edible. They are also known as "garlic spears", "stems", or "tops". Scapes generally have a milder taste than cloves. They are often used in stir frying or prepared like asparagus. Garlic leaves are a popular vegetable in many parts of Asia. The leaves are cut, cleaned, and then stir-fried with eggs, meat, or vegetables.
Mixing garlic with eggs and olive oil produces aioli. Garlic, oil, and a chunky base produce skordalia. Blending garlic, almond, oil, and soaked bread produces ajoblanco.
Garlic powder has a different taste than fresh garlic. If used as a substitute for fresh garlic, 1/8 teaspoon of garlic powder is equivalent to one clove of garlic.
[edit] Storage
Ready peeled garlic cloves sold in a plastic container
Domestically, garlic is stored warm (above 18°C [64°F]) and dry to keep it dormant (so that it does not sprout). It is traditionally hung; softneck varieties are often braided in strands, called "plaits" or grappes. Garlic is often kept in oil to produce flavoured oil; however, the practice requires measures to be taken to prevent the garlic from spoiling. Untreated garlic kept in oil can support the growth of deadly Clostridium botulinum. Refrigeration will not assure the safety of garlic kept in oil. Peeled cloves may be stored in wine orvinegar in the refrigerator.[10]
Commercially prepared oils are widely available, but when preparing and storing garlic-infused oil at home, there is a risk of botulismif the product is not stored properly. To reduce this risk, the oil should be refrigerated and used within one week. Manufacturers add acids and/or other chemicals to eliminate the risk of botulism in their products.[11]
Commercially, garlic is stored at −3°C, also dry.[12][13]
[edit] Historical useGarlic has been used as both food and medicine in many cultures for thousands of years, dating at least as far back as the time that the Giza pyramids were built. Garlic is still grown in Egypt, but the Syrian variety is the kind most esteemed now (see Rawlinson'sHerodotus, 2.125).
Garlic is mentioned in the Bible and the Talmud. Hippocrates, Galen, Pliny the Elder, and Dioscorides all mention the use of garlic for many conditions, including parasites, respiratory problems, poor digestion, and low energy. Its use in China was first mentioned in A.D. 510.
It was consumed by ancient Greek and Roman soldiers, sailors, and rural classes (Virgil, Ecologues ii. 11), and, according to Pliny the Elder (Natural History xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Galen eulogizes it as the "rustic's theriac" (cure-all) (see F. Adams' Paulus Aegineta, p. 99), and Alexander Neckam, a writer of the 12th century (see Wright's edition of his works, p. 473, 1863), recommends it as a palliative for the heat of the sun in field labor.
In the account of Korea's establishment as a nation, gods were said to have given mortal women with bear and tiger temperaments an immortal's black garlic before mating with them. This is a genetically unique six-clove garlic that was to have given the women supernatural powers and immortality. This garlic is still cultivated in a few mountain areas today.
In his Natural History, Pliny gives an exceedingly long list of scenarios in which it was considered beneficial (N.H. xx. 23). Dr. T. Sydenham valued it as an application in confluent smallpox, and, says Cullen (Mat. Med. ii. p. 174, 1789), found some dropsies cured by it alone. Early in the 20th century, it was sometimes used in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis or phthisis.
Harvesting garlic, from Tacuinum sanitatis, 15th century (Bibliothèque nationale).
Garlic was rare in traditional English cuisine (though it is said to have been grown in England before 1548) and has been a much more common ingredient in Mediterranean Europe. Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at crossroads, as a supper for Hecate (Theophrastus, Characters, The Superstitious Man); and according to Pliny, garlic and onions were invoked as deities by the Egyptians at the taking of oaths. (Pliny also states that garlic demagnetizes lodestones, which is not factual.)[14] The inhabitants of Pelusium, in lower Egypt (who worshiped the onion), are said to have had an aversion to both onions and garlic as food.
To prevent the plant from running to leaf, Pliny (N.H. xix. 34) advised bending the stalk downward and covering with earth; seeding, he observes, may be prevented by twisting the stalk (by "seeding", he most likely meant the development of small, less potent bulbs).
[edit] Medicinal use and health benefitsGarlic, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)Energy 150 kcal 620 kJCarbohydrates 33.06 g- Sugars 1.00g- Dietary fiber 2.1 g Fat0.5 gProtein6.39 g- beta-carotene 5 μg 0%Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.2 mg 15%Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.11 mg 7%Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.7 mg 5%Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.596 mg 12%Vitamin B6 1.235 mg95%Folate (Vit. B9) 3 μg 1%Vitamin C 31.2 mg52%Calcium 181 mg18%Iron 1.7 mg14%Magnesium 25 mg7% Phosphorus 153 mg22%Potassium 401 mg 9%Sodium 17 mg1%Zinc 1.16 mg12%Manganese 1.672 mg
Selenium 14.2 mcg
Percentages are relative to US
recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient databaseIn test tube studies garlic has been found to have antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal activity. However, these actions are less clear in humans and do not suggest that garlic is a substitute for antibiotics or antifungal medications. Garlic is also claimed to help prevent heart disease (including atherosclerosis, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure) and cancer.[15] Animal studies, and some early investigational studies in humans, have suggested possible cardiovascular benefits of garlic. A Czech study found that garlic supplementation reduced accumulation of cholesterol on the vascular walls of animals.[16] Another study had similar results, with garlic supplementation significantly reducing aortic plaque deposits of cholesterol-fed rabbits.[17] Another study showed that supplementation with garlic extract inhibited vascular calcification in human patients with high blood cholesterol.[18] The known vasodilative effect of garlic is possibly caused by catabolism of garlic-derived polysulfides tohydrogen sulfide in red blood cells, a reaction that is dependent on reduced thiols in or on the RBC membrane. Hydrogen sulfide is an endogenous cardioprotective vascular cell-signaling molecule.[19]
Although these studies showed protective vascular changes in garlic-fed subjects, a randomized clinical trial funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United States and published in the Archives of Internal Medicine in 2007 found that the consumption of garlic in any form did not reduce blood cholesterol levels in patients with moderately high baseline cholesterol levels.[20][21]
“Despite decades of research suggesting that garlic can improve cholesterol profiles, a new NIH-funded trial found absolutely no effects of raw garlic or garlic supplements on LDL, HDL, or triglycerides… The findings underscore the hazards of meta-analyses made up of small, flawed studies and the value of rigorously studying popular herbal remedies.”—theheart.org, 2007-02-26[22]
There are critics of the NIH, and its pharmaceutical lobby, who believe their study intended to confuse those prior findings that had shown protective vascular changes for withstanding high cholesterol levels (and not, as in the NIH study, the cholesterol levels themselves).
In 2007, the BBC reported that Allium sativum may have other beneficial properties, such as preventing and fighting the common cold.[23] This assertion has the backing of long tradition in herbal medicine, which has used garlic for hoarseness and coughs.[24]The Cherokee also used it as an expectorant for coughs and croup.[25]
Allium sativum has been found to reduce platelet aggregation[26][27][28][29] and hyperlipidemia.[29][30][31]
Garlic is also alleged to help regulate blood sugar levels. Regular and prolonged use of therapeutic amounts of aged garlic extracts lower blood homocysteine levels and has shown to prevent some complications of diabetes mellitus.[32][33] People taking insulinshould not consume medicinal amounts of garlic without consulting a physician.
In 1858, Louis Pasteur observed garlic's antibacterial activity, and it was used as an antiseptic to prevent gangrene during World War I and World War II.[34] More recently, it has been found from a clinical trial that a mouthwash containing 2.5% fresh garlic shows good antimicrobial activity, although the majority of the participants reported an unpleasant taste and halitosis.[35]
In modern naturopathy, garlic is used as a treatment for intestinal worms and other intestinal parasites, both orally and as an analsuppository. Garlic cloves are used as a remedy for infections (especially chest problems), digestive disorders, and fungal infections such as thrush.[36][37]
Garlic has been used reasonably successfully in AIDS patients to treat cryptosporidium in an uncontrolled study in China.[38] It has also been used by at least one AIDS patient to treat toxoplasmosis, another protozoal disease.[39]
Garlic supplementation in rats, along with a high protein diet, has been shown to boost testosterone levels.[40]
[edit] Side effectsGarlic is known for causing halitosis as well as causing sweat to have a pungent 'garlicky' smell which is caused by Allyl methyl sulfide (AMS). AMS is a gas which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic; from the blood it travels to the lungs (and from there to the mouth causing bad breath) and skin where it is exuded through skin pores. Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell.
Raw garlic is more potent and therefore cooking garlic reduces the effect. The green dry 'folds' in the center of the garlic clove are especially pungent. The sulfur compound allicin, produced by crushing or chewing fresh garlic produces other sulfur compounds: ajoene, allyl sulfides, and vinyldithiins. Aged garlic lack allicin, but may have some activity due to the presence of S-allylcysteine.
Some people suffer from allergies to plants in the allium family. Symptoms can include irritable bowel, diarrhea, mouth and throat ulcerations, nausea, breathing difficulties, and in rare cases anaphylaxis. Even if garlic is present in a very small amount, it can lead to an allergic reaction.
[edit] Properties
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When crushed, Allium sativum yields allicin, a powerful antibiotic and antifungal compound (phytoncide). In some cases, it can be used as a home remedy to help speed recovery from strep throat or other minor ailments because of its antibiotic properties. It also contains the sulfur containing compounds alliin, ajoene, diallylsulfide, dithiin, S-allylcysteine, and enzymes, vitamin B, proteins,minerals, saponins, flavonoids, and maillard reaction products, which are non-sulfur containing compounds. Furthermore aphytoalexin called allixin (3-hydroxy-5-methoxy-6-methyl-2-penthyl-4H-pyran-4-one) was found, a non-sulfur compound with a γ-pyrone skeleton structure with anti-oxidative effects,[1] anti-microbial effects,[41] anti-tumor promoting effects,[42] inhibition of aflatoxin B2 DNA binding,[42] and neurotrophic effects. Allixin showed an anti-tumor promoting effect in vivo, inhibiting skin tumor formation by TPA in DMBA initiated mice.[42] Analogs of this compound have exhibited anti tumor promoting effects in in vitro experimental conditions. Herein, allixin and/or its analogs may be expected useful compounds for cancer prevention or chemotherapy agents for other diseases.
The composition of the bulbs is approximately 84.09% water, 13.38% organic matter, and 1.53% inorganic matter, while the leaves are 87.14% water, 11.27% organic matter, and 1.59% inorganic matter.[43][44][45]
The phytochemicals responsible for the sharp flavor of garlic are produced when the plant's cells are damaged. When a cell is broken by chopping, chewing, or crushing, enzymes stored in cell vacuoles trigger the breakdown of several sulfur-containing compounds stored in the cell fluids. The resultant compounds are responsible for the sharp or hot taste and strong smell of garlic. Some of the compounds are unstable and continue to evolve over time. Among the members of the onion family, garlic has by far the highest concentrations of initial reaction products, making garlic much more potent than onions, shallots, or leeks.[46] Although people have come to enjoy the taste of garlic, these compounds are believed to have evolved as a defensive mechanism, deterring animals like birds, insects, and worms from eating the plant. Humans, however, usually enjoy these sensations.[47]
A large number of sulfur compounds contribute to the smell and taste of garlic. Diallyl disulfide is believed to be an important odour component. Allicin has been found to be the compound most responsible for the "hot" sensation of raw garlic. This chemical opens thermoTRP (transient receptor potential) channels that are responsible for the burning sense of heat in foods. The process of cooking garlic removes allicin, thus mellowing its spiciness.[48]
Due to its strong odor, garlic is sometimes called the "stinking rose". When eaten in quantity, garlic may be strongly evident in the diner's sweat and breath the following day. This is because garlic's strong-smelling sulfur compounds are metabolized, forming allyl methyl sulfide. Allyl methyl sulfide (AMS) cannot be digested and is passed into the blood. It is carried to the lungs and the skin, where it is excreted. Since digestion takes several hours, and release of AMS several hours more, the effect of eating garlic may be present for a long time.
This well-known phenomenon of "garlic breath" is alleged to be alleviated by eating fresh parsley. The herb is, therefore, included in many garlic recipes, such as pistou, persillade, and the garlic butter spread used in garlic bread. However, since the odour results mainly from digestive processes placing compounds such as AMS in the blood, and AMS is then released through the lungs over the course of many hours, eating parsley provides only a temporary masking. One way of accelerating the release of AMS from the body is the use of a sauna.
Because of the AMS in the bloodstream, it is believed by some to act as a mosquito repellent. However, there is no evidence to suggest that garlic is actually effective for this purpose.[49]
[edit] ToxicologySome people can have allergic reactions to garlic. Garlic-sensitive patients show positive tests to diallyldisulfide, allylpropyldisulfide, allylmercaptan and allicin, all present in garlic. People who suffer from garlic allergies will often be sensitive to many plants in the lily family (liliaceae), including onions, garlic, chives, leeks, shallots, garden lilies, ginger, and bananas.
[edit] Spiritual and religious perceptionsGarlic has been regarded as a force for both good and evil. A Christian myth considers that after Satan left the Garden of Eden, garlic arose in his left footprint and onion in the right.[50] In Europe, many cultures have used garlic for protection or white magic, perhaps owing to its reputation as a potent preventative medicine.[51] Central European folk beliefs considered garlic a powerful ward againstdemons, werewolves, and vampires.[51] To ward off vampires, garlic could be worn, hung in windows, or rubbed on chimneys and keyholes.[52]
In Daoism mythology, six-clove black garlic is used as part of the process of modifying a Daoist's physiology. It supposedly endows the users immortality by intensifying their vital energy or "chi".[53]
The association of garlic to evil spirits may be based on the antibacterial, antiparasitic value of garlic, which could prevent infections that lead to delusions and other related mental illness symptoms.[54][55]
In both Hinduism and Jainism, garlic is considered to stimulate and warm the body and to increase one's desires. Some Hindus generally avoid using garlic and the related onion in the preparation of foods for religious festivities and events. Followers of the Jain religion avoid eating garlic and onion on a daily basis.
In connection with the odor associated with garlic, Islam views eating garlic and subsequently going to the mosque as inappropriate. "Whoever has eaten (garlic) should not approach our mosque", indicated Muhammad.[56]
[edit] Miscellaneous
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Garlic Bulbs and cloves
Garlic growing in a container.
Garlic bulbs and individual cloves, one peeled.
Garlic scapes are often harvested early so that the bulbs will grow bigger.
A bulb of garlic, split.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
Contents of Garlic from WH Foods Although garlic may not always bring good luck, protect against evil or ward off vampires, it is guaranteed to transform any meal into a bold, aromatic and healthy culinary experience.
Fresh, dried and powdered garlic are available in markets throughout the year, however, fresh varieties from California are in season from June through December.
Garlic is arranged in a head, called the "bulb," averaging about 2 inches in height and diameter consisting of numerous small separate cloves. Both the cloves and the entire bulb are encased in paper-like sheathes that can be white, off-white or pinkish. Although garlic cloves have a firm texture, they can be easily cut or crushed. The taste of garlic is like no other-it hits the palate with a hot pungency that is shadowed by a very subtle background sweetness. While elephant garlic has larger cloves, it is more closely related to the leek and therefore does not offer the full health benefits of regular garlic.
This chart graphically details the %DV that a serving of Garlic provides for each of the nutrients of which it is a good, very good, or excellent source according to our Food Rating System. Additional information about the amount of these nutrients provided by Garlic can be found in the Food Rating System Chart. A link that takes you to the In-Depth Nutritional Profile for Garlic, featuring information over 80 nutrients, can be found under the Food Rating System Chart.
- Health Benefits
- Description
- History
- How to Select and Store
- How to Enjoy
- Individual Concerns
- Nutritional Profile
- References
Cardiovascular BenefitsNumerous studies have demonstrated potential benefits of regular garlic consumption on blood pressure, platelet aggregation, serum triglyceride level, and cholesterol levels. Routine eating of garlic may also help stimulate the production of nitric oxide in the lining of blood vessel walls, which may help to relax them. As a result of these beneficial actions, garlic can be described as a food that may help prevent atherosclerosis and diabetic heart disease, as well as reducing the risk of heart attack or stroke. However, exactly which individuals are most benefitted from garlic consumption remains a matter of some debate. A study published in theArchives of Internal Medicine showed that garlic did not help lower LDL cholesterol in adults with moderately high (versus very high) levels when consumed at approximately one clove per day, six days per week, for 6 months. However, these researchers simulateously concluded that garlic might still have cardiovascular benefits for these same individuals, even though it did not help lower their LDL levels. While more large-scale research studies are needed to determine the exact nature of garlic's benefits, this food can definitely be considered a potential ally in heart health.
A study published in Preventive Medicine shows that garlic inhibits coronary artery calcification, a process that serves as a marker for plaque formation since the body lays down calcium in areas that have been damaged. In this year-long study, patients given aged garlic extract daily showed an average increase in their calcium score of 7.5%, while those in the placebo group had an average increase in calcium score of 22.2%.
One reason for garlic's beneficial effects may be its ability to lessen the amount of free radicals present in the bloodstream. According to a study published in Life Sciences, a daily dose of 1 ml/kg body weight of garlic extract for six months resulted in a significant reduction in oxidant (free radical) stress in the blood of patients with atherosclerosis.
Since atherosclerotic plaques develop when cholesterol circulating in the bloodstream is damaged or oxidized, garlic's ability to prevent these oxidation reactions may explain some of its beneficial effects in atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. A German study published in Toxicology Letters indicates that garlic also greatly reduces plaque deposition and size by preventing the formation of the initial complex that develops into an atherosclerotic plaque. Called "nanoplaque," it is formed when calcium binds to proteoheparan sulfate and then to LDL cholesterol. Garlic prevents the binding of calcium to proteoheparan sulfate, thus decisively inhibiting plaque generation.
Research presented at the 6th Annual Conference on Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology held by the American Heart Association in Washington, D.C., suggests that garlic can help prevent and potentially reverse atherosclerotic plaque formation. The laboratory studies, conducted by well-known German scientist Professor Güautnter Siegel, M.D., from the University of Medicine in Berlin, Germany, found that powdered garlic (Kwai ® garlic) reduced the formation of nanoplaque (the first building blocks of atherosclerotic plaque) by up to 40% and reduced the size of the nanoplaque that did form by up to 20%.
Dr. Siegel's research shows that garlic acts in a manner similar to HDL ("good") cholesterol, which prevents the build-up of nanoplaques by hindering the docking of LDL ("bad" cholesterol) to its receptor sites in blood vessels or existing plaques.
Both garlic and HDL were able to reduce plaque formation and size within 30 minutes of incubation in these experiments. Existing plaques were dissolved by up to 25% within 15 minutes after the garlic was introduced, indicating a reversal of existing problems related to build-up of arterial plaque. In addition, calcification of the cholesterol docking sites in the arteries was reduced by up to 50% in the presence of the garlic extracts.
New Research More Fully Explains Garlic's Cardiovascular BenefitsLaboratory research by US and Swedish scientists published in the August 2005 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciencesreveals the mechanism behind garlic's cardiovascular benefits.
The compounds in garlic responsible for its pungency also excite a neuron pathway providing cardiovascular benefits. Garlic's pungency-and that of the other members of the Alliumgenus of plants, such as onions, leeks and chives-results from its organosulphur compounds, allicin and diallyl disulphide (DADS). In this current in vitro study, allicin and DADS were found to activate perivascular sensory nerve endings, inducing the relaxation and enlargement of blood vessels, lowering blood pressure and improving blood flow throughout the body.
Garlic's numerous beneficial cardiovascular effects are due to not only its sulfur compounds, but also to its vitamin C, vitamin B6, selenium and manganese:
Garlic is a very good source of vitamin C, the body's primary antioxidant defender in all aqueous (water-soluble) areas, such as the bloodstream, where it protects LDL cholesterol from oxidation. Since it is the oxidized form of LDL cholesterol that initiates damage to blood vessel walls, reducing levels of oxidizing free radicals in the bloodstream can have a profound effect on preventing cardiovascular disease.
Garlic's vitamin B6 helps prevent heart disease via another mechanism: lowering levels of homocysteine. An intermediate product of an important cellular biochemical process called the methylation cycle, homocysteine can directly damage blood vessel walls.
The selenium in garlic not only helps prevent heart disease, but also provides protection against cancer and heavy metal toxicity. A cofactor of glutathione peroxidase (one of the body's most important internally produced antioxidants), selenium also works with vitamin E in a number of vital antioxidant systems. Since vitamin E is one of the body's top defenders in all fat-soluble areas, while vitamin C protects the water-soluble areas, garlic, which contains both nutrients, does a good job of covering all the bases.
Garlic is rich not only in selenium, but also in another trace mineral, manganese, which also functions as a cofactor in a number of other important antioxidant defense enzymes, for example, superoxide dismutase. Studies have found that in adults deficient in manganese, the level of HDL (the "good form" of cholesterol) is decreased.
Practical Tip: National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Level III-3 evidence shows that consuming a half to one clove of garlic daily may have a cholesterol-lowering effect of up to 9%.(Tapsell LC, Hemphill I, et al. Med J Aust)
Anti-Inflammatory, Antibacterial and Antiviral ActivityGarlic, like onions, contains compounds that inhibit lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase, (the enzymes that generate inflammatory prostaglandins and thromboxanes), thus markedly reducing inflammation. These anti-inflammatory compounds along with the vitamin C in garlic, especially fresh garlic, make it useful for helping to protect against severe attacks in some cases of asthma and may also help reduce the pain and inflammation of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.
In addition, allicin, one of the sulfur-compounds responsible for garlic's characteristic odor, is a powerful antibacterial and antiviral agent that joins forces with vitamin C to help kill harmful microbes. In research studies, allicin has been shown to be effective not only against common infections like colds, flu, stomach viruses, and Candida yeast, but also against powerful pathogenic microbes including tuberculosis and botulism.
Although garlic alone appears unable to prevent infection with Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), the bacterium responsible for most peptic ulcers, as well as gastritis, frequently eating this richly flavored bulb may keep H. pylori from doing much damage. A study recently conducted at Faith University in Istanbul, Turkey, compared two groups of healthy individuals: one was selected from individuals who regularly ate lots of raw and/or cooked garlic, while the other group was composed of individuals who avoided it. For 19 months, blood samples were regularly collected from both groups and evaluated for the presence of H.pylori. While the incidence of H.pylori was pretty comparable-the bacterium was found in 79% of garlic eaters and 81% of those who avoided garlic-the garlic-consuming group had a clear advantage in that antibodies to H.pylori were much lower in their blood compared to those who ate no garlic. (Antibodies are formed when the immune system reacts to anything it considers a potential pathogen, so less antibodies toH.pylori means less of the bacterium was present.) Among those who ate garlic, those who ate both raw and cooked garlic had even lower levels of antibodies than those who ate their garlic only raw or only cooked.
Laboratory studies recently conducted at the University of Munich, Germany, help explain why garlic may be such a potent remedy against the common cold. In these studies, garlic was found to significantly reduce the activity of a chemical mediator of inflammation called nuclear transcription factor (NF) kappa-B.NF kappa-B is itself activated as part of the immune system's inflammatory response to invading organisms and damaged tissue. So, anything that sets off an inflammatory response (e.g. allergenic foods, a cold or other infection, physical trauma, excessive exercise, excessive consumption of foods containing high levels of omega-6 fatty acids-such as meat, corn or safflower oil) can trigger a surge in NF kappa-B, which in turn not only promotes inflammation but sets up ideal conditions for viruses, including HIV, to replicate. In the blood samples tested in these German studies, unfertilized garlic caused a 25% drop in NF kappa-B activity, while sulfur-fertilized garlic lowered NF kappa-B activity by a very robust 41%!
Garlic and Onions Protective against Many CancersMaking garlic and onions a staple in your healthy way of eating may greatly lower your risk of several common cancers, suggests a large data set of case-control studies from Southern European populations (Galeone C, Pelucchi C et al, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition).
Study participants consuming the most garlic had a 39% reduced risk for cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx, 57% reduced risk for esophageal cancer, 26% reduced risk for colorectal cancer, 44% reduced risk for laryngeal cancer, 10% reduced risk for breast cancer, 22% reduced risk for ovarian cancer, 19% reduced risk for prostate cancer, and 31% reduced risk for renal cell cancer, compared to those eating the least garlic. Similarly, those eating the most onions showed an 84% reduced risk for cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx, 88% reduced risk for esophageal cancer, 56% reduced risk for colorectal cancer, 83% reduced risk for laryngeal cancer, 25% reduced risk for breast cancer, 73% reduced risk for ovarian cancer, 71% reduced risk for prostate cancer, and 38% reduced risk for renal cell cancer, compared to those eating the least onions.
Potent, Even Against Drug-Resistant Strains of BacteriaResults of two studies suggest that garlic is a potent antibiotic, even against strains that have become resistant to many drugs. One study conducted at the University of California Irvine Medical Center and published in the December 2003 issue of Nutrition showed that garlic juice, even when diluted up to 1:128 of the original juice, demonstrates significant antibacterial activity against a spectrum of pathogens including antibiotic-resistant strains such as methicillin- and ciprofloxacin-resistant staphylococci, vancomycin-resistant enterococci, and ciprofloxacin-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. A second study found that garlic was able to inhibit methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MSRA) from human patients that was injected into laboratory animals.(MSRA is one of the antibiotic resistant bacteria whose incidence has risen dramatically in recent years in hospitals.)
Promotes Optimal Health
The organosulfur compound found in garlic called ajoene may also be useful in the treatment of skin cancer. In a study published in the July 2003 Archives of Dermatological Research, researchers applied ajoene topically to the tumors of patients with either nodular or superficial basal cell carcinoma, and in 17 of the 21 patients, the tumors shrunk significantly. Lab tests of the tumors before and after the application of ajoene revealed a significant decrease in Bcl-2, an apoptosis-suppressing protein. (Apoptosis is the self-destruct sequence used by the body to eliminate cancerous cells.)
Other studies have shown that as few as two or more servings of garlic a week may help protect against colon cancer. Substances found in garlic, such as allicin, have been shown to not only protect colon cells from the toxic effects of cancer-causing chemicals, but also to stop the growth of cancer cells once they develop. While more research is needed to confirm, recent animal research has also suggested that garlic may confer protection against the development of stomach cancer through its potential ability to decreaseH.pylori-induced gastritits.
Cooking garlic with meat appears to reduce the production of carcinogenic (cancer-causing) chemicals that can occur in meat as a result of cooking methods, such as grilling, that expose meat to high temperatures.
Research presented at the American Association for Cancer Research's Frontiers in Cancer Prevention Research meeting in Baltimore, MD, suggests that the phytonutrient responsible for garlic's pungency may help prevent cancer by inhibiting the effects of one such carcinogen called PhIP.A cancer-causing heterocyclic amine, PhIP is thought to be one reason for the increased incidence of breast cancer among women who eat large quantities of meat because it is rapidly transformed into DNA-damaging compounds.
Diallyl sulphide (DAS), an organosulfur compound that gives garlic its unique flavor, has been shown to inhibit the transformation of PhIP into carcinogens. DAS blocks this transformation by decreasing the production of the liver enzymes (the Phase I enzymes CYP1A1, CYP1A2 and CYP1B1) that transform PhIP into activated DNA-damaging compounds.
In addition, DAS signals the genes responsible for producing two protective antioxidant enzymes, (glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), which help protect the body against harmful compounds such as those produced from PhIP. These findings suggest that making garlic, onion, chives and other Allium vegetables, all of which contain DAS, a staple part of your Healthiest Way of Eating may help in preventing breast cancer induced by PhIP in well-done meats. And enjoying these DAS-rich foods may help protect the men you love as well: Consumption of Allium vegetables has also been associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer.
Good intakes of vitamin C and selenium, with which fresh garlic is well-endowed, are also associated with a reduced risk of colon cancer, making garlic a smart addition to any colon cancer prevention plan.
Cardiovascular disease is a well-known side-effect of diabetes, but garlic may provide some protection. When diabetic laboratory animals were given garlic extract for an 8-week period, the hyperreactivity of their blood vessels to noradrenaline (a vasoconstrictive hormone) and acetylcholine (a compound involved in nerve transmission) was significantly lessened. According to the researchers, their results suggest that garlic may help prevent the development of abnormal vascular contraction seen in diabetics.
Promotes Weight ControlThe most potent active constituent in garlic, allicin, has been shown to not only lower blood pressure, insulin and triglycerides in laboratory animals fed a fructose (sugar)-rich diet, but also to prevent weight gain, according to a study published in the American Journal of Hypertension. In this study, animals who developed high insulin levels, high blood pressure, and high triglycerides were given either allicin or served as a control. Despite the fact that all of the animals consumed the same amount of food, weight rose in the control group but not in animals who were being supplemented with allicin. In those groups, body weight remained stable or declined slightly when allicin was given. The researchers concluded that allicin may be of practical value for weight control.
Protection against AsbestosAsbestos, a well-known carcinogen, is thought to cause cell mutations by generating reactive oxygen species (free radicals) and depleting one of the body's most important internally produced antioxidants, glutathione. Garlic contains numerous sulfur compounds and glutathione precursors that act as antioxidants and also demonstrate anti-carcinogenic properties. In a laboratory study published in Toxicology Letters, garlic extract, when administered along with asbestos, so significantly reduced DNA mutations in human blood lymphocytes (a type of immune cell), that the researchers concluded: "garlic extract may be an efficient, physiologically tolerable quencher of asbestos-induced genotoxcity."
DescriptionFor a small vegetable, garlic (Allium sativum) sure has a big, and well deserved, reputation. This member of the Lily family, a cousin to onions, leeks and chives, can transform any meal into a bold, aromatic and healthy culinary experience.
Garlic is arranged in a head, called the "bulb," which is made up of separate cloves. Both the cloves and the entire bulb are encased in paper-like sheathes that can be white, off-white or pinkish.
Garlic cloves are off-white in color, and although they have a firm texture, they can be easily cut or crushed. The taste of garlic is like no other; it hits the palate with a hot pungency that is shadowed by a very subtle background sweetness.
The teardrop-shaped garlic bulbs range in size; however, they usually average around two inches in height and two inches in width at their widest point. While elephant garlic has larger cloves, it is more closely related to the leek and therefore does not offer the full health benefits of regular garlic.
HistoryNative to central Asia, garlic is one of the oldest cultivated plants in the world and has been grown for over 5000 years. Ancient Egyptians seem to have been the first to cultivate this plant that played an important role in their culture.
Garlic was not only bestowed with sacred qualities and placed in the tomb of Pharaohs, but it was given to the slaves that built the Pyramids to enhance their endurance and strength. This strength-enhancing quality was also honored by the ancient Greeks and Romans, civilizations whose athletes ate garlic before sporting events and whose soldiers consumed it before going off to war.
Garlic was introduced into various regions throughout the globe by migrating cultural tribes and explorers. By the 6th century BC, garlic was known in both China and India, the latter country using it for therapeutic purposes.
Throughout the millennia, garlic has been a beloved plant in many cultures for both its culinary and medicinal properties. Over the last few years, it has gained unprecedented popularity since researchers have been scientifically validating its numerous health benefits.
Currently, China, South Korea, India, Spain and the United States are among the top commercial producers of garlic.
How to Select and StoreFor maximum flavor and nutritional benefits, always purchase fresh garlic. Although garlic in flake, powder or paste form may be more convenient, you will derive less culinary and health benefits from these forms.
Purchase garlic that is plump and has unbroken skin. Gently squeeze the garlic bulb between your fingers to check that it feels firm and is not damp.
Avoid garlic that is soft, shriveled and moldy or that has begun to sprout. These may be indications of decay that will cause inferior flavor and texture. Size is often not an indication of quality. If your recipe calls for a large amount of garlic, remember that it is always easier to peel and chop a few larger cloves than many smaller ones. Fresh garlic is available in the market throughout the year.
Store fresh garlic in either an uncovered or a loosely covered container in a cool, dark place away from exposure to heat and sunlight. This will help maintain its maximum freshness and help prevent sprouting, which reduces its flavor and causes excess waste. It is not necessary to refrigerate garlic. Some people freeze peeled garlic; however, this process reduces its flavor profile and changes its texture.
Depending upon its age and variety, whole garlic bulbs will keep fresh from two weeks to two months. Inspect the bulb frequently and remove any cloves that appear to be dried out or moldy. Once you break the head of garlic, it greatly reduces its shelf life to just a few days.
How to EnjoyTips for Preparing Garlic:The first step to using garlic (unless you are roasting the entire bulb) is to separate the individual cloves. An easy way to do this is to place the bulb on a cutting board or hard surface and gently, but firmly, apply pressure with the palm of your hand at an angle. This will cause the layers of skin that hold the bulb together to separate.
To separate the skin from the individual cloves, place a clove with the smooth side down on a cutting board and gently tap it with the flat side of a wide knife. You can then remove the skin either with your fingers or with a small knife. If there is a green sprout in the clove's center, gently remove it since it is difficult to digest.
Chopping or crushing stimulates the enzymatic process that converts the phytonutrient alliin into allicin, a compound to which many of garlic's health benefits are attributed. In order to allow for maximal allicin production, wait several minutes before eating or cooking the garlic.
Crush then cook garlic cloves lightly for the most health benefits, say Agricultural Research Service scientists. Garlic's heart-protective phytonutrients-its allicin and thiosulfinates- help lower blood pressure and break up clumps of potentially artery-clogging platelets in the bloodstream. Until now, most researchers assumed eating raw whole garlic bulbs would provide the most phytonutrient activity, but when they boiled (3 minutes), baked (200 degrees C) and microwaved both crushed and uncrushed garlic cloves, they discovered that crushing, which frees garlic's beneficial compounds, is responsible for most of its health benefits. Although cooking for 10 minutes completely suppressed garlic's phytonutrient actions, lightly cooking garlic was no problem-except for microwaving, which almost entirely stripped garlic of its blood-thinning effects. J Agric Food Chem. 2007 Feb 21;55(4):1280-8.
A Few Quick Serving Ideas:Marinate pressed garlic in olive oil and use this flavored oil in dressings and marinades.
Purée fresh garlic, canned garbanzo beans, tahini, olive oil and lemon juice to make quick and easy hummus dip.
Healthy sauté steamed spinach, garlic, and fresh lemon juice.
Add garlic to sauces and soups.
Purée roasted garlic, cooked potatoes and olive oil together to make delicious garlic mashed potatoes. Season to taste.
Individual ConcernsGarlic is not a commonly allergenic food, is not known to contain measurable amounts of oxalates or purines and is also not included in the Environmental Working Group's 2009 report "Shopper's Guide to Pesticides" as one of the 12 foods most frequently containing pesticide residues.
Do not store garlic in oil at room temperature. Garlic-in-oil mixtures stored at room temperature provide perfect conditions for producing botulism, regardless of whether the garlic is fresh or has been roasted.
Nutritional ProfileGarlic is an excellent source of manganese. . It is also a very good source of vitamin B6 and vitamin C. and . In addition, garlic is a good source of protein and thiamin (vitamin B1) as well as the minerals phosphorus, selenium, calcium, potassium, iron and copper.
For an in-depth nutritional profile click here: Garlic.
In-Depth Nutritional ProfileIn addition to the nutrients highlighted in our ratings chart, an in-depth nutritional profile for Garlic is also available. This profile includes information on a full array of nutrients, including carbohydrates, sugar, soluble and insoluble fiber, sodium, vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, amino acids and more. Introduction to Food Rating System ChartIn order to better help you identify foods that feature a high concentration of nutrients for the calories they contain, we created a Food Rating System. This system allows us to highlight the foods that are especially rich in particular nutrients. The following chart shows the nutrients for which this food is either an excellent, very good, or good source (below the chart you will find a table that explains these qualifications). If a nutrient is not listed in the chart, it does not necessarily mean that the food doesn't contain it. It simply means that the nutrient is not provided in a sufficient amount or concentration to meet our rating criteria. (To view this food's in-depth nutritional profile that includes values for dozens of nutrients - not just the ones rated as excellent, very good, or good - please use the link below the chart.) To read this chart accurately, you'll need to glance up in the top left corner where you will find the name of the food and the serving size we used to calculate the food's nutrient composition. This serving size will tell you how much of the food you need to eat to obtain the amount of nutrients found in the chart. Now, returning to the chart itself, you can look next to the nutrient name in order to find the nutrient amount it offers, the percent Daily Value (DV%) that this amount represents, the nutrient density that we calculated for this food and nutrient, and the rating we established in our rating system. For most of our nutrient ratings, we adopted the government standards for food labeling that are found in the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's "Reference Values for Nutrition Labeling." Read more background information and details of our rating system.Garlic
1.00 oz-wt
28.35 grams
42.24 caloriesNutrientAmountDV
(%)Nutrient
DensityWorld's Healthiest
Foods Ratingmanganese0.47 mg23.510.0excellentvitamin B6 (pyridoxine)0.35 mg17.57.5very goodvitamin C8.85 mg14.86.3very goodtryptophan0.02 g6.32.7goodselenium4.03 mcg5.82.5goodcalcium51.31 mg5.12.2goodphosphorus43.38 mg4.31.8goodvitamin B1 (thiamin)0.06 mg4.01.7goodcopper0.08 mg4.01.7goodprotein1.80 g3.61.5goodWorld's Healthiest
Foods RatingRuleexcellentDV>=75%ORDensity>=7.6ANDDV>=10%very goodDV>=50%ORDensity>=3.4ANDDV>=5%goodDV>=25%ORDensity>=1.5ANDDV>=2.5%In-Depth Nutritional Profile for Garlic
References
- Adlercreutz H. Western diet and Western diseases: some hormonal and biochemical mechanisms and associations. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 1990:50(S201):3-23 1990.
- American Botanical Council. New Research Supports Garlic's Role in Arresting and Reversing Arteriosclerosis. www. Herbalgram.org, the e-newsletter of the American Botanical Council, April 29, 2005. 2005.
- Andorfer JH, Tchaikovskaya T, Listowsky I. Selective expression of glutathione S-transferase genes in the murine gastrointestinal tract in response to dietary organosulfur compounds. Carcinogenesis 2003 Nov 21 [Epub ahead of print]. 2003.
- Anwar MM, Meki AR. Oxidative stress in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats: effects of garlic oil and melatonin. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol. Aug;135(4):539-547 2003.
- Baluchnejadmojarad T, Roghani M. Endothelium-dependent and -independent effect of aqueous extract of garlic on vascular reactivity on diabetic rats. Fitoterapia. 2003 Dec;74(7-8):630-7. 2003.
- Bautista DM, Movahed P, Hinman A, Axelsson HE, Sterner O, HOgestatt ED, Julius D, Jordt SE, Zygmunt PM. Pungent products from garlic activate the sensory ion channel TRPA1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Aug 15; [Epub ahead of print] 2005. PMID:16103371.
- Bhattacharya K, Yadava S, Papp T, Schiffmann D, Rahman Q. Reduction of chrysotile asbestos-induced genotoxicity in human peripheral blood lymphocytes by garlic extract. Toxicol Lett. 2004 Nov 28;153(3):327-32. 2004. PMID:15454308.
- Cavagnaro PF, Camargo A, Galmarini CR, Simon PW. Effect of cooking on garlic (Allium sativum L.) antiplatelet activity and thiosulfinates content. J Agric Food Chem. 2007 Feb 21;55(4):1280-8. Epub 2007 Jan 27. 2007. PMID:17256959.
- Durak I, Aytac B, Atmaca Y, Devrim E, Avci A, Erol C, Oral D. Effects of garlic extract consumption on plasma and erythrocyte antioxidant parameters in atherosclerotic patients. Life Sci. 2004 Sep 3;75(16):1959-66. 2004. PMID:15306163.
- Elkayam A, Mirelman D, Peleg E, Wilchek M, Miron T, Rabinkov A, Oron-Herman M, Rosenthal T. The effects of allicin on weight in fructose-induced hyperinsulinemic, hyperlipidemic, hypertensive rats. Am J Hypertens. 2003 Dec;16(12):1053-6. 2003.
- Galeone C, Pelucchi C, Levi F, Negri E, Franceschi S, Talamini R, Giacosa A, La Vecchia C. Onion and garlic use and human cancer. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006 Nov;84(5):1027-32. 2006. PMID:17093154.
- Keiss HP, Dirsch VM, Hartung T, Haffner T, Trueman L, Auger J, Kahane R, Vollmar AM. Garlic (Allium sativum L.) modulates cytokine expression in lipopolysaccharide-activated human blood thereby inhibiting NF-kappaB activity. J Nutr. Jul;133(7):2171-5. 2003.
- Lee YL, Cesario T, Wang Y, Shanbrom E, Thrupp L. Antibacterial activity of vegetables and juices. Nutrition. 2003 Nov-Dec;19(11-12):994-6. 2003.
- Salih BA, Abasiyanik FM. Does regular garlic intake affect the prevalence of Helicobacter pylori in asymptomatic subjects. Saudi Med J. Aug;24(8):842-5. 2003.
- Siegel G, Michel F, Ploch M, Rodriguez M, Malmsten M. [Inhibition of arteriosclerotic plaque development by garlic]. Wien Med Wochenschr. 2004 Nov;154(21-22):515-22. 2004. PMID:15638070.
- Tapsell LC, Hemphill I, Cobiac L, Patch CS, Sullivan DR, Fenech M, Roodenrys S, Keogh JB, Clifton PM, Williams PG, Fazio VA, Inge KE. Health benefits of herbs and spices: the past, the present, the future. Med J Aust. 2006 Aug 21;185(4 Suppl):S4-24. 2006. PMID:17022438.
- Tilli CM, Stavast-Kooy AJ, Vuerstaek JD, Thissen MR, Krekels GA, Ramaekers FC, Neumann HA. The garlic-derived organosulfur component ajoene decreases basal cell carcinoma tumor size by inducing apoptosis. Arch Dermatol Res. Jul;295(3):117-23. 2003.
- Tsao SM, Hsu CC, Yin MC. Garlic extract and two diallyl sulphides inhibit methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in BALB/cA mice. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2003 Dec;52(6):974-80. 2003.
- Wilson CL, Aboyade-Cole A, Darling-Reed S, Thomas RD. Poster Presentations, Session A, Abstract 2543: A30 Diallyl Sulfide Antagonizes PhIP Induced Alterations in the Expression of Phase I and Phase II Metabolizing Enzymes in Human Breast Epithelial Cells. presented at the American Association for Cancer Research's Frontiers in Cancer Prevention Research meeting in Baltimore, MD, July 2005. 2005.
For the former town, see Garlic, California.Garlic
Allium sativum, known as garlic, from William Woodville, Medical Botany, 1793.
Scientific classificationKingdom:Plantae
(unranked):Angiosperms
(unranked):Monocots
Order:Asparagales
Family:Alliaceae
Subfamily:Allioideae
Tribe:Allieae
Genus:Allium
Species:A. sativum
Binomial nameAllium sativum
L.Allium sativum, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the onion family Alliaceae. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot,leek, and chive. Garlic has been used throughout recorded history for both culinary and medicinal purposes. It has a characteristic pungent, spicy flavor that mellows and sweetens considerably with cooking.[1] A bulb of garlic, the most commonly used part of the plant, is divided into numerous fleshy sections called cloves. Single clove garlic (also called Pearl garlic or Solo garlic) also exists—it originates in the Yunnan province of China. The cloves are used as seed, for consumption (raw or cooked), and for medicinal purposes. The leaves, stems (scape), and flowers (bulbils) on the head (spathe) are also edible and are most often consumed while immature and still tender. The papery, protective layers of "skin" over various parts of the plant and the roots attached to the bulb are the only parts not considered palatable.
Contents[hide]
- 1 Nomenclature and taxonomy
- 2 List of the cultivars
- 3 Origin and distribution
- 4 Cultivation
- 5 Uses
- 6 Properties
- 7 Toxicology
- 8 Spiritual and religious perceptions
- 9 Miscellaneous
- 10 Gallery
- 11 See also
- 12 Notes
- 13 References
- 14 External links
[edit] List of the cultivars This section requires expansion.
[edit] Origin and distributionThe ancestry of cultivated garlic, according to Zohary and Hopf, is not definitely established: "A difficulty in the identification of its wild progenitor is the sterility of the cultivars."[4]
Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalised; it probably descended from the species Allium longicuspis, which grows wild in southwestern Asia.[5] The "wild garlic", "crow garlic", and "field garlic" of Britain are the speciesAllium ursinum, Allium vineale, and Allium oleraceum, respectively. In North America, Allium vineale (known as "wild garlic" or "crow garlic") and Allium canadense, known as "meadow garlic" or "wild garlic" and "wild onion", are common weeds in fields.[6] One of the best-known "garlics", the so-called elephant garlic, is actually a wild leek (Allium ampeloprasum). It is called "Sudu Lunu" in Sinhalese, Lehsun in Urdu and Hindi, Velli ullipaaya in Telugu and Vellai poondu in Tamil.
[edit] CultivationGarlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. In cold climates, cloves can be planted in the ground about six weeks before the soil freezes and harvested in late spring. Garlic plants are not attacked by pests. They can suffer from pink root, a disease that stunts the roots and turns them pink or red. Garlic plants can be grown close together, leaving enough room for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth.
There are different types or subspecies of garlic, most notably hardneck garlic and softneck garlic. The latitude where the garlic is grown affects the chocie of type as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is generally grown in cooler climates; softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator.[7][8]
[edit] Production trends
Garlic output in 2005.
Garlic is grown globally, but China is by far the largest producer of garlic, with approximately 10.5 million tonnes (23 billion pounds) annually, accounting for over 77% of world output. India (4.1%) and South Korea (2%) follow, with Russia (1.6%) in fourth place and the United States (where garlic is grown primarily as a cash crop in every state except for Alaska) in fifth place (1.4%).[9] This leaves 16% of global garlic production in countries that each produce less than 2% of global output. Much of the garlic production in the United States is centered on Gilroy, California, which calls itself the "garlic capital of the world".
Top Ten Garlic Producers — 11 June 2008CountryProduction (Tonnes)Footnote People's Republic of China12,088,000F India645,000F South Korea325,000F Russia254,000F United States221,810
Egypt168,000F Spain142,400
Argentina140,000F Myanmar128,000F Ukraine125,000F World15,686,310ANo symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = unofficial/semiofficial/mirror data,
C = calculated figure, A = aggregate (may include official, semiofficial, or estimates).
Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic and Social Department: The Statistical Division
[edit] Uses[edit] Culinary uses
Garlic being crushed using agarlic press.
Garlic is widely used around the world for its pungent flavor as a seasoning or condiment. It is a fundamental component in many or most dishes of various regions, including eastern Asia, south Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, northern Africa, southern Europe, and parts of South and Central America. The flavour varies in intensity and aroma with the different cooking methods. It is often paired with onion, tomato, or ginger. The parchment-like skin is much like the skin of an onion and is typically removed before using in raw or cooked form. An alternative is to cut the top off the bulb, coat the cloves by dribbling olive oil (or other oil-based seasoning) over them, and roast them in an oven. The garlic softens and can be extracted from the cloves by squeezing the (root) end of the bulb, or individually by squeezing one end of the clove. In Japan and Korea, heads of garlic are fermented at high temperature; the resulting product, called black garlic, is sweet and syrupy, and is now being sold in the United States, United Kingdom andAustralia.
Garlic may be applied to breads to create a variety of classic cuisines such as garlic bread, garlic toast, bruschetta, crostini andcanapé.
Garlic being rubbed using a garlicboss
Oils are often flavored with garlic cloves. These infused oils are used to season all categories of vegetables, meats, breads andpasta.
In some cuisine, the young bulbs are pickled for 3–6 weeks in a mixture of sugar, salt, and spices. In eastern Europe, the shoots are pickled and eaten as an appetizer.
Immature scapes are tender and edible. They are also known as "garlic spears", "stems", or "tops". Scapes generally have a milder taste than cloves. They are often used in stir frying or prepared like asparagus. Garlic leaves are a popular vegetable in many parts of Asia. The leaves are cut, cleaned, and then stir-fried with eggs, meat, or vegetables.
Mixing garlic with eggs and olive oil produces aioli. Garlic, oil, and a chunky base produce skordalia. Blending garlic, almond, oil, and soaked bread produces ajoblanco.
Garlic powder has a different taste than fresh garlic. If used as a substitute for fresh garlic, 1/8 teaspoon of garlic powder is equivalent to one clove of garlic.
[edit] Storage
Ready peeled garlic cloves sold in a plastic container
Domestically, garlic is stored warm (above 18°C [64°F]) and dry to keep it dormant (so that it does not sprout). It is traditionally hung; softneck varieties are often braided in strands, called "plaits" or grappes. Garlic is often kept in oil to produce flavoured oil; however, the practice requires measures to be taken to prevent the garlic from spoiling. Untreated garlic kept in oil can support the growth of deadly Clostridium botulinum. Refrigeration will not assure the safety of garlic kept in oil. Peeled cloves may be stored in wine orvinegar in the refrigerator.[10]
Commercially prepared oils are widely available, but when preparing and storing garlic-infused oil at home, there is a risk of botulismif the product is not stored properly. To reduce this risk, the oil should be refrigerated and used within one week. Manufacturers add acids and/or other chemicals to eliminate the risk of botulism in their products.[11]
Commercially, garlic is stored at −3°C, also dry.[12][13]
[edit] Historical useGarlic has been used as both food and medicine in many cultures for thousands of years, dating at least as far back as the time that the Giza pyramids were built. Garlic is still grown in Egypt, but the Syrian variety is the kind most esteemed now (see Rawlinson'sHerodotus, 2.125).
Garlic is mentioned in the Bible and the Talmud. Hippocrates, Galen, Pliny the Elder, and Dioscorides all mention the use of garlic for many conditions, including parasites, respiratory problems, poor digestion, and low energy. Its use in China was first mentioned in A.D. 510.
It was consumed by ancient Greek and Roman soldiers, sailors, and rural classes (Virgil, Ecologues ii. 11), and, according to Pliny the Elder (Natural History xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Galen eulogizes it as the "rustic's theriac" (cure-all) (see F. Adams' Paulus Aegineta, p. 99), and Alexander Neckam, a writer of the 12th century (see Wright's edition of his works, p. 473, 1863), recommends it as a palliative for the heat of the sun in field labor.
In the account of Korea's establishment as a nation, gods were said to have given mortal women with bear and tiger temperaments an immortal's black garlic before mating with them. This is a genetically unique six-clove garlic that was to have given the women supernatural powers and immortality. This garlic is still cultivated in a few mountain areas today.
In his Natural History, Pliny gives an exceedingly long list of scenarios in which it was considered beneficial (N.H. xx. 23). Dr. T. Sydenham valued it as an application in confluent smallpox, and, says Cullen (Mat. Med. ii. p. 174, 1789), found some dropsies cured by it alone. Early in the 20th century, it was sometimes used in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis or phthisis.
Harvesting garlic, from Tacuinum sanitatis, 15th century (Bibliothèque nationale).
Garlic was rare in traditional English cuisine (though it is said to have been grown in England before 1548) and has been a much more common ingredient in Mediterranean Europe. Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at crossroads, as a supper for Hecate (Theophrastus, Characters, The Superstitious Man); and according to Pliny, garlic and onions were invoked as deities by the Egyptians at the taking of oaths. (Pliny also states that garlic demagnetizes lodestones, which is not factual.)[14] The inhabitants of Pelusium, in lower Egypt (who worshiped the onion), are said to have had an aversion to both onions and garlic as food.
To prevent the plant from running to leaf, Pliny (N.H. xix. 34) advised bending the stalk downward and covering with earth; seeding, he observes, may be prevented by twisting the stalk (by "seeding", he most likely meant the development of small, less potent bulbs).
[edit] Medicinal use and health benefitsGarlic, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)Energy 150 kcal 620 kJCarbohydrates 33.06 g- Sugars 1.00g- Dietary fiber 2.1 g Fat0.5 gProtein6.39 g- beta-carotene 5 μg 0%Thiamine (Vit. B1) 0.2 mg 15%Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.11 mg 7%Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.7 mg 5%Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.596 mg 12%Vitamin B6 1.235 mg95%Folate (Vit. B9) 3 μg 1%Vitamin C 31.2 mg52%Calcium 181 mg18%Iron 1.7 mg14%Magnesium 25 mg7% Phosphorus 153 mg22%Potassium 401 mg 9%Sodium 17 mg1%Zinc 1.16 mg12%Manganese 1.672 mg
Selenium 14.2 mcg
Percentages are relative to US
recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient databaseIn test tube studies garlic has been found to have antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal activity. However, these actions are less clear in humans and do not suggest that garlic is a substitute for antibiotics or antifungal medications. Garlic is also claimed to help prevent heart disease (including atherosclerosis, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure) and cancer.[15] Animal studies, and some early investigational studies in humans, have suggested possible cardiovascular benefits of garlic. A Czech study found that garlic supplementation reduced accumulation of cholesterol on the vascular walls of animals.[16] Another study had similar results, with garlic supplementation significantly reducing aortic plaque deposits of cholesterol-fed rabbits.[17] Another study showed that supplementation with garlic extract inhibited vascular calcification in human patients with high blood cholesterol.[18] The known vasodilative effect of garlic is possibly caused by catabolism of garlic-derived polysulfides tohydrogen sulfide in red blood cells, a reaction that is dependent on reduced thiols in or on the RBC membrane. Hydrogen sulfide is an endogenous cardioprotective vascular cell-signaling molecule.[19]
Although these studies showed protective vascular changes in garlic-fed subjects, a randomized clinical trial funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United States and published in the Archives of Internal Medicine in 2007 found that the consumption of garlic in any form did not reduce blood cholesterol levels in patients with moderately high baseline cholesterol levels.[20][21]
“Despite decades of research suggesting that garlic can improve cholesterol profiles, a new NIH-funded trial found absolutely no effects of raw garlic or garlic supplements on LDL, HDL, or triglycerides… The findings underscore the hazards of meta-analyses made up of small, flawed studies and the value of rigorously studying popular herbal remedies.”—theheart.org, 2007-02-26[22]
There are critics of the NIH, and its pharmaceutical lobby, who believe their study intended to confuse those prior findings that had shown protective vascular changes for withstanding high cholesterol levels (and not, as in the NIH study, the cholesterol levels themselves).
In 2007, the BBC reported that Allium sativum may have other beneficial properties, such as preventing and fighting the common cold.[23] This assertion has the backing of long tradition in herbal medicine, which has used garlic for hoarseness and coughs.[24]The Cherokee also used it as an expectorant for coughs and croup.[25]
Allium sativum has been found to reduce platelet aggregation[26][27][28][29] and hyperlipidemia.[29][30][31]
Garlic is also alleged to help regulate blood sugar levels. Regular and prolonged use of therapeutic amounts of aged garlic extracts lower blood homocysteine levels and has shown to prevent some complications of diabetes mellitus.[32][33] People taking insulinshould not consume medicinal amounts of garlic without consulting a physician.
In 1858, Louis Pasteur observed garlic's antibacterial activity, and it was used as an antiseptic to prevent gangrene during World War I and World War II.[34] More recently, it has been found from a clinical trial that a mouthwash containing 2.5% fresh garlic shows good antimicrobial activity, although the majority of the participants reported an unpleasant taste and halitosis.[35]
In modern naturopathy, garlic is used as a treatment for intestinal worms and other intestinal parasites, both orally and as an analsuppository. Garlic cloves are used as a remedy for infections (especially chest problems), digestive disorders, and fungal infections such as thrush.[36][37]
Garlic has been used reasonably successfully in AIDS patients to treat cryptosporidium in an uncontrolled study in China.[38] It has also been used by at least one AIDS patient to treat toxoplasmosis, another protozoal disease.[39]
Garlic supplementation in rats, along with a high protein diet, has been shown to boost testosterone levels.[40]
[edit] Side effectsGarlic is known for causing halitosis as well as causing sweat to have a pungent 'garlicky' smell which is caused by Allyl methyl sulfide (AMS). AMS is a gas which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic; from the blood it travels to the lungs (and from there to the mouth causing bad breath) and skin where it is exuded through skin pores. Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell.
Raw garlic is more potent and therefore cooking garlic reduces the effect. The green dry 'folds' in the center of the garlic clove are especially pungent. The sulfur compound allicin, produced by crushing or chewing fresh garlic produces other sulfur compounds: ajoene, allyl sulfides, and vinyldithiins. Aged garlic lack allicin, but may have some activity due to the presence of S-allylcysteine.
Some people suffer from allergies to plants in the allium family. Symptoms can include irritable bowel, diarrhea, mouth and throat ulcerations, nausea, breathing difficulties, and in rare cases anaphylaxis. Even if garlic is present in a very small amount, it can lead to an allergic reaction.
[edit] Properties
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this article if you can. (August 2009)
When crushed, Allium sativum yields allicin, a powerful antibiotic and antifungal compound (phytoncide). In some cases, it can be used as a home remedy to help speed recovery from strep throat or other minor ailments because of its antibiotic properties. It also contains the sulfur containing compounds alliin, ajoene, diallylsulfide, dithiin, S-allylcysteine, and enzymes, vitamin B, proteins,minerals, saponins, flavonoids, and maillard reaction products, which are non-sulfur containing compounds. Furthermore aphytoalexin called allixin (3-hydroxy-5-methoxy-6-methyl-2-penthyl-4H-pyran-4-one) was found, a non-sulfur compound with a γ-pyrone skeleton structure with anti-oxidative effects,[1] anti-microbial effects,[41] anti-tumor promoting effects,[42] inhibition of aflatoxin B2 DNA binding,[42] and neurotrophic effects. Allixin showed an anti-tumor promoting effect in vivo, inhibiting skin tumor formation by TPA in DMBA initiated mice.[42] Analogs of this compound have exhibited anti tumor promoting effects in in vitro experimental conditions. Herein, allixin and/or its analogs may be expected useful compounds for cancer prevention or chemotherapy agents for other diseases.
The composition of the bulbs is approximately 84.09% water, 13.38% organic matter, and 1.53% inorganic matter, while the leaves are 87.14% water, 11.27% organic matter, and 1.59% inorganic matter.[43][44][45]
The phytochemicals responsible for the sharp flavor of garlic are produced when the plant's cells are damaged. When a cell is broken by chopping, chewing, or crushing, enzymes stored in cell vacuoles trigger the breakdown of several sulfur-containing compounds stored in the cell fluids. The resultant compounds are responsible for the sharp or hot taste and strong smell of garlic. Some of the compounds are unstable and continue to evolve over time. Among the members of the onion family, garlic has by far the highest concentrations of initial reaction products, making garlic much more potent than onions, shallots, or leeks.[46] Although people have come to enjoy the taste of garlic, these compounds are believed to have evolved as a defensive mechanism, deterring animals like birds, insects, and worms from eating the plant. Humans, however, usually enjoy these sensations.[47]
A large number of sulfur compounds contribute to the smell and taste of garlic. Diallyl disulfide is believed to be an important odour component. Allicin has been found to be the compound most responsible for the "hot" sensation of raw garlic. This chemical opens thermoTRP (transient receptor potential) channels that are responsible for the burning sense of heat in foods. The process of cooking garlic removes allicin, thus mellowing its spiciness.[48]
Due to its strong odor, garlic is sometimes called the "stinking rose". When eaten in quantity, garlic may be strongly evident in the diner's sweat and breath the following day. This is because garlic's strong-smelling sulfur compounds are metabolized, forming allyl methyl sulfide. Allyl methyl sulfide (AMS) cannot be digested and is passed into the blood. It is carried to the lungs and the skin, where it is excreted. Since digestion takes several hours, and release of AMS several hours more, the effect of eating garlic may be present for a long time.
This well-known phenomenon of "garlic breath" is alleged to be alleviated by eating fresh parsley. The herb is, therefore, included in many garlic recipes, such as pistou, persillade, and the garlic butter spread used in garlic bread. However, since the odour results mainly from digestive processes placing compounds such as AMS in the blood, and AMS is then released through the lungs over the course of many hours, eating parsley provides only a temporary masking. One way of accelerating the release of AMS from the body is the use of a sauna.
Because of the AMS in the bloodstream, it is believed by some to act as a mosquito repellent. However, there is no evidence to suggest that garlic is actually effective for this purpose.[49]
[edit] ToxicologySome people can have allergic reactions to garlic. Garlic-sensitive patients show positive tests to diallyldisulfide, allylpropyldisulfide, allylmercaptan and allicin, all present in garlic. People who suffer from garlic allergies will often be sensitive to many plants in the lily family (liliaceae), including onions, garlic, chives, leeks, shallots, garden lilies, ginger, and bananas.
[edit] Spiritual and religious perceptionsGarlic has been regarded as a force for both good and evil. A Christian myth considers that after Satan left the Garden of Eden, garlic arose in his left footprint and onion in the right.[50] In Europe, many cultures have used garlic for protection or white magic, perhaps owing to its reputation as a potent preventative medicine.[51] Central European folk beliefs considered garlic a powerful ward againstdemons, werewolves, and vampires.[51] To ward off vampires, garlic could be worn, hung in windows, or rubbed on chimneys and keyholes.[52]
In Daoism mythology, six-clove black garlic is used as part of the process of modifying a Daoist's physiology. It supposedly endows the users immortality by intensifying their vital energy or "chi".[53]
The association of garlic to evil spirits may be based on the antibacterial, antiparasitic value of garlic, which could prevent infections that lead to delusions and other related mental illness symptoms.[54][55]
In both Hinduism and Jainism, garlic is considered to stimulate and warm the body and to increase one's desires. Some Hindus generally avoid using garlic and the related onion in the preparation of foods for religious festivities and events. Followers of the Jain religion avoid eating garlic and onion on a daily basis.
In connection with the odor associated with garlic, Islam views eating garlic and subsequently going to the mosque as inappropriate. "Whoever has eaten (garlic) should not approach our mosque", indicated Muhammad.[56]
[edit] Miscellaneous
This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this article to prose, ifappropriate. Editing help is available. (August 2009)
- Known adverse effects of garlic include halitosis (nonbacterial bad breath), indigestion, nausea, emesis, and diarrhea.[57]
- Garlic may interact with warfarin, antiplatelets, saquinavir, antihypertensives, calcium channel blockers, and hypoglycemic drugs, as well as other medications. Consult a health professional before taking a garlic supplement[57] or consuming excessive amounts of garlic.
- Garlic can thin the blood, similar to the effect of aspirin.[58]
- Two outbreaks of botulism have been caused by consuming commercially produced garlic-in-oil preparations that were not properly preserved. It is especially important for home preparation to use safe and tested food preservation methods to retard bacterial growth, such as including sufficient salt or acidity and keeping the mixture refrigerated. It is recommended to not keep home preparations for more than a week.[59][60]
- While culinary quantities are considered safe for consumption, very high quantities of garlic and garlic supplements have been linked with an increased risk of bleeding, particularly during pregnancy and after surgery and childbirth.[57][61] Some breastfeeding mothers have found their babies slow to feed and have noted a garlic odour coming from their baby when they have consumed garlic.[57][62] The safety of garlic supplements had not been determined for children.[62]
- The side effects of long-term garlic supplementation, if any exist, are largely unknown, and no FDA-approved study has been performed. However, garlic has been consumed for several thousand years without any adverse long-term effects, suggesting that modest quantities of garlic pose, at worst, minimal risks to normal individuals. Possible side effects include gastrointestinal discomfort, sweating, dizziness, allergic reactions, bleeding, and menstrual irregularities.[61]
- Some degree of liver toxicity has been demonstrated in rats, particularly in extremely large quantities exceeding those that a rat would consume under normal situations.[63]
- There have been several reports of serious burns resulting from garlic being applied topically for various purposes, including naturopathic uses and acne treatment, so care must be taken to test a small area of skin using a very low concentration of garlic.[64] On the basis of numerous reports of such burns, including burns to children, topical use of raw garlic, as well as insertion of raw garlic into body cavities, is discouraged. In particular, topical application of raw garlic to young children is not advisable.[65]
- Garlic and onions might be toxic to cats or dogs.[66]
Garlic Bulbs and cloves
Garlic growing in a container.
Garlic bulbs and individual cloves, one peeled.
Garlic scapes are often harvested early so that the bulbs will grow bigger.
A bulb of garlic, split.
[edit] See also
- Allistatin, a natural antibiotic found in garlic and onions.
- Field garlic
- Insect repellent
- International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants
- List of plants used as medicine
- Phytoalexin
- Garlic Is as Good as Ten Mothers. Directed by Les Blank.
- Herbalism
- Naturopathic medicine
- ^ Gernot Katzer (2005-02-23). "Spice Pages: Garlic (Allium sativum, garlick)". http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Alli_sat.html. Retrieved 2007-08-28.
- ^ a b Lee, J. et al. (2005). "Free amino acid and cysteine sulfoxide composition of 11 garlic (Allium sativum L.) cultivars by gas chromatography with flame ionization and mass selective detection". http://hdl.handle.net/10113/877. Retrieved 5 June 2009.
- ^ a b c d Tabor, G. et al. (2004). "Influence of storage duration on field sprouting, maturity and yield of some garlic (Allium sativum L.) cultivars at Debre Zeit, Ethiopia". The Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology 79 (6): 871-876. http://www.jhortscib.org/Vol79/79_6/8.htm. Retrieved 5 June.
- ^ Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, Domestication of plants in the Old World, third edition (Oxford: University Press, 2000), p. 197
- ^ Salunkhe and Kadam p. 397
- ^ McGee p. 112
- ^ http://www.nj.com/warrenreporter/index.ssf/2008/12/farmers_forum_it_probably_came.html
- ^ http://www.natural-holistic-health.com/alternative-therapies/herbs-for-health/medicinal-garlic/
- ^ [1]
- ^ GARLIC: Safe Methods to Store, Preserve and Enjoy
- ^ It's Your Health - Garlic-In-Oil
- ^ Garlic Produce Facts
- ^ Garlic Information: Storage
- ^ Lehoux, Daryn (2003). "Tropes, Facts, and Empiricism" (PDF). Perspectives on Science 11: 326–345. doi:10.1162/106361403773062678.http://personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/daryn.lehoux/Tropes.pdf.
- ^ University of Maryland Garlic
- ^ Sovová M, Sova P (May 2004). "[Pharmaceutical importance of Allium sativum L. 5. Hypolipemic effects in vitro and in vivo]" (in Czech).Ceska Slov Farm 53 (3): 117–23. PMID 15218732.
- ^ Durak I, Oztürk HS, Olcay E, Güven C (2002). "Effects of garlic extract supplementation on blood lipid and antioxidant parameters and atherosclerotic plaque formation process in cholesterol-fed rabbits". J Herb Pharmacother 2 (2): 19–32. PMID 15277094.
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- ^ Benavides GA, Squadrito GL, Mills RW, et al (November 2007). "Hydrogen sulfide mediates the vasoactivity of garlic". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 (46): 17977–82. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705710104. PMID 17951430.
- ^ Charlson M, McFerren M (February 2007). "Garlic: what we know and what we don't know". Arch. Intern. Med. 167 (4): 325–6.doi:10.1001/archinte.167.4.325. PMID 17325291. http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/extract/167/4/325.
- ^ Gardner CD, Lawson LD, Block E, et al (February 2007). "Effect of raw garlic vs commercial garlic supplements on plasma lipid concentrations in adults with moderate hypercholesterolemia: a randomized clinical trial". Arch. Intern. Med. 167 (4): 346–53.doi:10.1001/archinte.167.4.346. PMID 17325296. http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/167/4/346.
- ^ Goodbye, garlic? Randomized controlled trial of raw garlic and supplements finds no effect on lipids Retrieved 27 February 2007
- ^ Garlic 'prevents common cold' 2007
- ^ Grieve, Maud. (Mrs.). Garlic. A Modern Herbal. Hypertext version of the 1931 edition. Accessed: December 18, 2006. [2]
- ^ Hamel, Paul B. and Mary U. Chiltoskey 1975 Cherokee Plants and Their Uses -- A 400 Year History. Sylva, N.C. Herald Publishing Co. (p. 35)
- ^ Rahman K (November 2007). "Effects of garlic on platelet biochemistry and physiology". Mol Nutr Food Res 51 (11): 1335–44.doi:10.1002/mnfr.200700058. PMID 17966136.
- ^ Chan KC, Yin MC, Chao WJ (March 2007). "Effect of diallyl trisulfide-rich garlic oil on blood coagulation and plasma activity of anticoagulation factors in rats". Food Chem Toxicol 45 (3): 502–7. PMID 17123684.
- ^ Borrelli F, Capasso R, Izzo AA (November 2007). "Garlic (Allium sativum L.): adverse effects and drug interactions in humans". Mol Nutr Food Res 51 (11): 1386–97. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200700072. PMID 17918162.
- ^ a b Steiner M, Lin RS (June 1998). "Changes in platelet function and susceptibility of lipoproteins to oxidation associated with administration of aged garlic extract". J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 31 (6): 904–8. doi:10.1097/00005344-199806000-00014. PMID 9641475.
- ^ Kojuri J, Vosoughi AR, Akrami M (March 2007). "Effects of anethum graveolens and garlic on lipid profile in hyperlipidemic patients". Lipids Health Dis 1 (6): 5. doi:10.1186/1476-511X-6-5. PMID 17328819.
- ^ Mader FH (October 1990). "Treatment of hyperlipidaemia with garlic-powder tablets. Evidence from the German Association of General Practitioners' multicentric placebo-controlled double-blind study". Arzneimittelforschung 40 (10): 1111–6. PMID 2291748.
- ^ People with diabetes should say 'yes' to garlic by Patricia Andersen-Parrado, Better Nutrition, Sept 1996
- ^ Garlic - University of Maryland Medical Center
- ^ Health effects of garlic American Family Physician by Ellen Tattelman, July 1, 2005
- ^ Groppo, F.; Ramacciato, J.; Motta, R.; Ferraresi, P.; Sartoratto, A. (2007) "Antimicrobial activity of garlic against oral streptococci." Int. J. Dent. Hyg., 5:109–115.
- ^ Lemar KM, Passa O, Aon MA, et al (October 2005). "Allyl alcohol and garlic (Allium sativum) extract produce oxidative stress in Candida albicans". Microbiology (Reading, Engl.) 151 (Pt 10): 3257–65. doi:10.1099/mic.0.28095-0. PMID 16207909.http://mic.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/full/151/10/3257.
- ^ Shuford JA, Steckelberg JM, Patel R (January 2005). "Effects of fresh garlic extract on Candida albicans biofilms". Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49 (1): 473. doi:10.1128/AAC.49.1.473.2005. PMID 15616341. PMC: 538912. http://aac.asm.org/cgi/content/full/49/1/473.
- ^ Fareed G, Scolaro M, Jordan W, Sanders N, Chesson C, Slattery M, Long D, Castro C. The use of a high-dose garlic preparation for the treatment of Cryptosporidium parvum diarrhea. NLM Gateway. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
- ^ John S. James. Treatment Leads on Cryptosporisiosis: Preliminary Report on Opportunistic Infection, AIDS TREATMENT NEWS No. 049 - January 29, 1988. Retrieved December 7, 2007.
- ^ Oi Y, Imafuku M, Shishido C, Kominato Y, Nishimura S, Iwai K. (2001). "Garlic supplementation increases testicular testosterone and decreases plasma corticosterone in rats fed a high protein diet.". Journal of Nutrition 131 (8): 2150–6. PMID 11481410.
- ^ Kodera Y., Matuura H., Yoshida S., Sumida T., Itakura Y., Fuwa T., Nishino H. (1989-01-30). "Allixin, a stress compound from garlic.".http://joi.jlc.jst.go.jp/JST.JLC/AID/6d45e46d45c048c9062c390a58734a7228bf?from=J-STAGE&&lang=en. Retrieved 2009-01-30.
- ^ a b c Yamasaki T., Teel R. W., Lau B. H. (1991-08-01). "Effect of allixin, a phytoalexin produced by garlic, on mutagenesis, DNA-binding and metabolism of aflatoxin B1 = 2009-01-30". http://joi.jlc.jst.go.jp/JST.JLC/AID/6d45e46d45c048c9062c390a58734a7c72bf?from=J-STAGE&&lang=en.
- ^ http://www.economicexpert.com/a/Garlic.htm
- ^ http://lem.ch.unito.it/didattica/infochimica/2006_aglio/pagine/agronomy.html
- ^ http://www.goldbamboo.com/topic-t6335-a1-6Allium_sativum.html
- ^ McGee p. 310–311
- ^ Macpherson et al. section "Conclusion"
- ^ Macpherson et al.
- ^ Mosquito Repellents
- ^ Pickering, David (2003). Cassell's Dictionary of Superstitions. Sterling Publishing. ISBN 0-304-36561-0. p. 211
- ^ a b McNally, Raymond T (1994). In Search of Dracula. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-65783-0. p. 120.
- ^ McNally p. 122; Pickering p. 211.
- ^ http://washokufood.blogspot.com/2009/03/ninniku-garlic.html
- ^ University of Maryland Garlic
- ^ Neurodegenerative diseases
- ^ Bukhari, Volume 7, Book 65
- ^ a b c d Hogg, Jennifer (2002-12-13). "Garlic Supplements" (PDF). Complementary Medicines Summary. UK Medicines Information, National Health Service. http://www.ukmi.nhs.uk/Med_info/documents/GarlicSuppsCMSFinal2.pdf. Retrieved 2007-07-07.
- ^ Garlic - Allium sativum [NCCAM Herbs at a Glance]
- ^ CSU SafeFood Newsletter, Summer 2005 - Vol 9 No. 4 - Botulinum Toxin: Friend or Foe
- ^ Health Canada - Garlic-in-Oil
- ^ a b MedlinePlus Herbs and Supplements: Garlic (Allium sativum L.)
- ^ a b Mayo Clinic, garlic advisory
- ^ Alnaqeeb MA, Thomson M, Bordia T, Ali M (June 1996). "Histopathological effects of garlic on liver and lung of rats". Toxicol. Lett. 85 (3): 157–64. PMID 8644128. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0378427496036582.
- ^ Baruchin AM, Sagi A, Yoffe B, Ronen M (November 2001). "Garlic burns". Burns 27 (7): 781–2. PMID 11600262.http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0305417901000390.
- ^ Garty BZ (March 1993). "Garlic burns". Pediatrics 91 (3): 658–9. PMID 8441577.
- ^ What you should know about household hazards to pets brochure by the American Veterinary Medical Association.
[edit] References
- Japanese garlic.????????????.jp[????].
- Balch, P. A. (2000). Prescription for Nutritional Healing, 3rd ed. New York: Avery.
- Block, E. (1985). The chemistry of garlic and onions. Scientific American 252 (March): 114–9.
- Block, E. (1992). The organosulfur chemistry of the genus Allium — implications for organic sulfur chemistry. Angewandte Chemie International Edition 104: 1158–1203.
- Breithaupt-Gr�gler K, Ling M, Boudoulas H, Belz GG (October 1997). "Protective effect of chronic garlic intake on elastic properties of aorta in the elderly". Circulation 96 (8): 2649–55. PMID 9355906. http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9355906.
- Efendy JL, Simmons DL, Campbell GR, Campbell JH (July 1997). "The effect of the aged garlic extract, 'Kyolic', on the development of experimental atherosclerosis". Atherosclerosis 132 (1): 37–42. PMID 9247357.http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0021-9150(97)00078-6.
- Gardner, C. D.; Lawson, L. D.; Block, E.; Chatterjee, L. M.; Kiazand, A.; Balise, R. R.; Kraemer, H. C. (2007) The effect of raw garlic vs. garlic supplements on plasma lipids concentrations in adults with moderate hypercholesterolemia: A clinical trial. "Archives of Internal Medicine" 167: 346–353.
- Garty BZ (March 1993). "Garlic burns". Pediatrics 91 (3): 658–9. PMID 8441577.
- Hamilton, Andy (2004). Selfsufficientish - Garlic. Retrieved 1 May 2005.
- Hile, A. G.; Shan, Z.; Zhang, S.-Z.; Block, E. (2004). Aversion of European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) to garlic oil treated granules: garlic oil as an avian repellent. Garlic oil analysis by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52: 2192–6.
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- Yukihiro Kodera, Makoto Ichikawa, Jiro Yoshida, Naoki Kashimoto, Naoto Uda, Isao Sumioka, Nagatoshi Ide and Kazuhisa Ono, “Pharmacokinetic Study of Allixin, a Phytoalexin Produced by Garlic”, Chem. Pharm. Bull., Vol. 50, 354-363 (2002). [3]
- Yukihiro Kodera, Masanori Ayabe, Kozue Ogasawara, Susumu Yoshida, Norihiro Hayashi and Kazuhisa Ono, “Allixin Accumulation with Long-term Storage of Garlic”, Chem. Pharm. Bull., Vol. 50, 405-407 (2002). [4]
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- Lindsey J. Macpherson, Bernhard H. Geierstanger, Veena Viswanath, Michael Bandell, Samer R. Eid, SunWook Hwang, and Ardem Patapoutian (2005). "The pungency of garlic: Activation of TRPA1 and TRPV1 in response to allicin". Current Biology 15(May 24): 929–34.
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